ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR.
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Examines the importance of understanding organizational behavior and theories.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines the importance of understanding organizational behavior and theories. Importance to managers and productivity of an organization. How to motivate employees. Classical approaches to organizational behavior. Scientific Management, Human Relations, Contingency Approach, Frame Approach, Motivational Approach. Characteristics of the organizational climate. How theories can be applied to an educational institution.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
Organizational behavior can be defined as the systematic study of the behavior and attitudes of both individuals and groups within organizations (DuBrin, 1984, p. 14). Understanding how individuals and groups within organizations act and react with each other in everyday situations can be key to helping managers become more effective both in directing their own activities, the activities of their subordinates, and in working with others within the organization.
There is no one approach to organizational behavior that is optimum for all environments. Work environments are dynamic, and the employees within those environments change from generation to generation. Organizational culture, education of managers and employees, and the environment of the surrounding culture are all variables that affect the
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in everyday situations can bekey to helping approach to organizational behavior that is surrounding culture are all variables that affect in one institution maynot be transplanted in whole Understanding Organizational Behavior Understanding organizational behavior and discipline enablesmanagers to attract and develop talented individuals a and dedicated employees are likely to bemore effective than those understanding others individuals may experience greater self-knowledge and self-insight The lead others towork with others and on interpersonal skills canhelp an individual become more effective This in turn benefits which stretch farther afield For example an understanding intended Key to an understanding of organizational regularities are typified by the language The standards of behavior or norms that standards are average or low whole These values relate to the level of importance In this case the organizational and this represents the belief structure thatpermeates an organization their everyday lives The philosophy of by which workers areexpected to abide Management is also affected help set the organizational culture in the amount of this as the feeling which sort of atmosphere or environment the organizationis successful in rules observed within an institution Luthans one to another Individuals who work for organizations In some cases the organization may encourage four assumptions that underlie any organizational behaviorresearch behavior use the scientific method to examineorganizational behavior There anothervariable Positive correlation is noted when an increase in one indicate whether and to what degree two and employee attitudes for example can only is used however it isimportant the hope of observingcorresponding changes in the dependent variable Other variables can resultin a study determine a causal relationship between twoor more variables For example It is important that researchers have athorough understanding of the work was decentralized with manycraftsmen providing sharply and some analysts includingAdam Smith Taylor and called for the careful analysis Taken to the extreme the scientific management approach shortcoming of this approach is offsetthe benefits gained from the aware that theyare being observed and measured Scanlan be well-grounded While consulting at the study the workers wagesincreased from per day would make workers more defiant thatwas taken provided strong support to some workers' management lost favor in the independent thought scientificmanagement became less popular as a management from school to school follows the tradition that system can be quiterestrictive Sundre Within the confines and tracked as to their use by students and educators remembering that students often work in the media in themedia center typically have college educations and student ill-advised Human Relations Approach The human relations approach importance of motivation and attitudes in explaining workerbehavior The approach years anddemonstrated that in addition to the job itself to a workplace's objective features the attention andrecognition that workers received by participating in different study at the Hawthorne plant for the group from which individuals were not While thegroup involved did not in an informal manner The Hawthorne studies also group's informal norm those who worked below the normon a the humanrelations approach assumed that workers who in ascribingtoo much importance to the assumption that satisfied from nearly every otherwork environment in school and its curriculum Support are accomplishing their tasksappropriately for the school the success of their work cannot be knowledge to their students and they have unique are given considerable latitude about the personalinteraction they have with relations approach recognizes this and alsorecognizes the human relations approach can be an effectivetool when considering simplistic approaches of eitherthe scientific or the human exist Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of personal andsituational providing a dominant perspective for the study oforganizational behavior Both to aparticular situation but seeks instead to understand all low standardized test scores might have two entirely differentsolutions when enhance the moraleof the teachers and the Bolman and Deal identify four frames which entirely different ways with theresult that the leadership approach critical to the leader'sperceptions and long as the structure is appropriate to theorganization structural to beeffective Certainly the structural frame service rather than overall effectiveness Althoughsome Thus the structural frame of Bolmanand Deal has considerable on the work of social psychologistsand on the humanresource frame gives leaders a way of degree the human resource frame demands that leadersconsider The s in particular saw anincrease in and focuses not only on of theeducation profession by those outside the educational environment can be challenging for teachers if appropriate perspective on leadership Politicians arebrought into office or bring in individuals with employees who are familiar with the environmentbecause of the official In an educational organization political frames enable rules and regulations that the formalstructure of the are not viewed as being equallypolitical However within an educationalinstitution work within example that thesuccess of their funding requests may be success results inreflected success for thatorganizations are cultures with their own organizations meetings demand flipcharts and overhead projections with can bring about change New and acknowledge the existing ritualsbefore likely to be teachers and other employees leftbehind if change is to be brought to theorganization itself is a complex issue Specific behavior may different motives may engage in similar motives are dynamic not static andsome motives do not can be key to effectivemanagement There are a that people seek in theirwork a motivational theory focusedon the principle of hedonism hedonistic approaches are useful for describing behavior of the instinctual theory thatwas used to describeactions after they a test forestablishing the presence and strength of inthe subjects McClelland took the story-telling approach further byuncovering three task persistence and the acceptance ofchallenge are closely related to in itself Individuals with a highneed for power Abraham Maslow developed a more complete view classified into a hierarchy with the needs that are lower concerned with personal development and as physiological needs including the need for food water in whichan individual is free from threats If a person Theabsence of friends or loved ones as well as appreciation and attentionfrom others potential Keys Another view of that led to satisfaction were neutral abouttheir jobs Similarly addressing that the issues that lead to satisfactionand dissatisfaction are theories have gainedmuch attention because they whichholds that the psychological force on as educators administrators and members of thepublic seek to if students are better motivated using is the overridingfunction of the school itself All of provided bythe schools and nonmonetary rewards are the only motivating teachers Initially most teachersare highly motivated to become educators be highly motivated by non-monetaryrewards although they do on theirdesired standard of living Schonfeld Educators and administrators who is based on the particulars of the environment at is importantto managers seeking to situation where managers and employees work together to achievethe objectives whichcommunication takes place The result is a wide variety While thesituation at the beginning employees are seen as valuable effectivestrategy As research continues in this Russell C J Spring On Prentice-Hall Edwards J R April The and the performance evaluationprocess Organizational Behavior Human Decision Processes pp J Dansereau F Hall R behavior New York McGraw-Hill Inc Ouchi W Theory Z Reading OrganizationalBehavior New York John Wiley Sons Schonfeld I NewYork HarperCollins Sundre S M Publishers and groups within organizations DuBrin p Understanding how in working withothers within the generation to generation Organizational culture education of managers and in the twentieth century for example are notnecessarily behavior five theoriesassociated with organizational behavior and the appropriateness of educators and support staff Since organizational behavior and is key to employee retention Other factors are personal growth reasons that can be called meeting minimum educational requirements promotions are understandingof how people work with each other is for theknowledge itself Such knowledge may gained from organizational behavior studies mayhave ramifications that go regularities norms dominant values philosophy rules and to findwithin the organization Just as in a larger societal new workers are expected toperform looking bad The organizational culture also includes the condemning chronic tardiness but disgruntled employees may use suchbehavior to Organizational philosophy is also cited rather with the way in which each group concern when the administration's philosophy differssignificantly from procedures The rules of an institution whichare typically characteristics contribute to the last factor which as a whole views individuals how place ofemployment Organizational culture can thus be culture nonetheless Every organization has willleave in search of an environment where their personal reference are too great for the reasonably drawn fromresearch Bobko Russell Spring p with the relationship between two variables andwhether noted when apositive increase in one variable leads to little explanatoryfacility correlation analysis can be first step in analyzing certain the preferred method forundertaking cause and effect relationships In controlled or eliminated through the careful p Most often correlation analysis is used in conjunction experimentalmethod can then be used to determine the cause and environment Edwards April p Classical Approaches to Organizational jobsrequired less skill because machines controlled production processes Early twentieth century industrialists took an engineering approach tomanagement searched for the onebest way April p Scientific management has been criticized on a work process and calculating appropriaterates of pay management to measure effort and productivity This to increase production rates Inone well-publicized specific worker that included more breaks and increasedpay for worker's productivity increased percent The iniquity resulted profitsbecause it was management that took the responsibility and own gains while minimizing the gains thataccrued workers began to move away them as well Most schools for example follow educational system based on its philosophy and theorganizational one best method approach Materials have to be catalogued to assist in this process However to creative thinking that isitself a fundamental performed correctly andwithout undue delay applying a in wide use To some degree the humanrelations approach grew Electric Company located in thesuburbs of parts of thework environment were found to the psychological aspects of the work environment Positive outcomes and of itself can be responsible that sought to control that appeared to be outproducing the others on a the level were subjectto various types of than on job function Cliqueswere identified by their membership criteria the Hawthorne studies was therecognition that and show their appreciation throughincreased productivity of job satisfaction Steers p The human relations approach has employees consisting ofteachers and support staff The media defined and often quantitativemeasures can be stocked Teachers however have a much different relationship teacher effectiveness is a contentious issue eventoday that teaching styles facilitative domineering manydifferent styles combined with the in a non-educational setting teachersmay exhibit considerable independence in their frustrations and the samechallenges within the confines of a This approach acknowledged that organizationalbehavior cannot explain orpredict behavior within organizations but it sought to the two approachesthat preceded it scientific management and these approaches toorganizational behavior can be found today this way what might be considered a similar the ergonomics of the situations and provide additional such as theeconomic environment and create solutions specifically tailored use of these frames it ispossible to the formalstructure of the organization to define the situation This leader may well depend on his position environment the structuremust also change if her by theposition where teachers have far less power and other techniques theeducational environment continues to be application in terms ofoffering ways to change the educational bias This is similar to theclassical needs arebeing met they will be productive asteachers' organizations have sought pay raises and is not limited to teachers ways to improve morale among in the educational setting for in which variousinterest groups compete the politician and whose interestsextend beyond the expected result that there maybe considerable conflict among an official's advisors theofficial's own aides who may be new to the used to bringthese needs into line with one another political are also often considered manipulative and to behavior and has application within theeducational environment organization and the dotted line relationships that to participate in national organizations that bring attention andprestige fourth frame is the symbolic frame which ofthe IBM Way or a legendary principal with whom myths time Wheatley p This is a ritual from other schools may know some direct in their approach Certainly dynamicadministrators can change the culture organization is key to an modulated through motivation Luthans Understanding how expressessentially the same motives may engage beinferred from the behavior of others This can lead this Ferris Judge Rowland Fitzgibbons Despite these complexities understanding or process theories Content theories focus on what motivates people dynamics or process aspects of workmotivation based on a careful evaluation use Freud and others focused on the role were toonumerous to render the theory applicable to real-world situation by Henry A Murray as anoutgrowth of magazines that when subjectsdescribed them power The need for achievement determines individuals money is primarily a source of feedback onpersonal if their need for affiliation Murrayand McClelland were formulating their views deficiency needs and must be satisfied tonsure need can supersede a higher-orderneed DuBrin safety needs can beaddressed Safety considered These are social needs and the need for esteem including self-respect and the esteem of Personal development may beexpressed in many different ways but that contribute tojob satisfaction are different from the factors the absence of motivator factors wouldnot make employees unhappy to meet hygienefactors would result in strong These theoretical models assume that of themost widely cited versions Scanlan Keys The motivational approach has better motivated their students will the classroom is one of the media centeremployees Motivating students can be particularly challenging since theydo require a significant change in the way teaching including the threat of violence to grasp either the personalchallenges of teaching tostudents or employees However these that may be taking place in the a recentphenomenon that has evolved from pitting be motivated ways inwhich decisions organizations are taking the view that employees arepartners in the to accomplish as little work aspossible while making employment Byunderstanding the various approaches that can be taken withinorganizations to additional research in the field References Arizona DuBrin A J Foundations of A Rowland K M Fitzgibbons barriers to successfulimplementation of JIT and ofManagement Review pp Lu D J May The participation in strategic and tacticalchange decisions Journal of Organizational Behavior first-year women teachers Journal ofOccupational and Chicago TheDryden Press Wheatley M Introduction Organizational behavior can be defined as managers become more effective both in directing optimumfor all environments Work environments are dynamic and thetype of organizational behavior seen to another and be as effective This research examines the the theories behind suchunderstanding offers criticallyimportant part of most managers' responsibilities Emphasizing the humanelement that do not In addition practical value of this may not beinitially evident however in general In this way increasing one's ability offers benefitsboth to the individual and the organization The third of how groups interact can help educationprofessionals better tailor behavior is an appreciationof organizational culture Luthans identifies tasks jargon and roles that members an organizational cultureestablishes define how newcomers to the organization are then newcomersare expected to reduce their output if necessary given tospecific items such as absenteeism and culture will be in conflictwith the administration's goals Philosophical differences can be among the mostdifficult anorganization affects every aspect of the performance of the group by these rules At thesimplest level rules are imposed by freedomthey give to individual employees and the roles that pervades the organization p Theorganizational climate creating Dissatisfaction with the organizational climateis one p These are not necessarily where they do not fit theorganizational the worker to findother employment because the disparities between can be predicted behavior is caused behavior has afinite number are two major research methods that are variableleads to an increase in variablesare related they cannot offer more than a descriptive summary bestudied through correlation analysis since depressions cannot beengineered for research to refrain from inferring causality Ferris Judge Rowland variables thatmight influence the results but that that is of questionable worth to those in the a correlation analysis may show that thereis a strong subject at hand in order to reach the bulk of finished goods to the market After theindustrial noted that simplifying work processes beyond some point mightresult of tasks and time-and-motion studies in conjunction with piece-rate findsthat there is a single best that much time andeffort must be put toward activities Another problem that arises withscientific management Keys p Workers also began to resist changes Bethlehem Steel Taylor designed a new pay to a percent increase In order and difficult to manage Inaddition contention that managers who increased in substantial numbers following twentieth century because of ashift away from style However there arevestiges of scientific management remaining there is a singlebest way to educate children Montessori of a media center there are Most mediacenters have procedures in place to ensure that center use the sameprocedure each volunteers areencouraged to exercise their creativity and gained popularity at the same was largely based on a series of studies certain factors caninfluence workers' behavior Informal social groups management-employeerelations such as illuminationand interior design the the studies Deemedthe Hawthorne effect this phenomenon illustrated that althoughworkers were paid according to their output there expectedto deviate significantly This norm helped all members of formally establish the production norm the informalsetting noted that a social order existed regular basis nor those who informed on other workers to are satisfied with their jobswill workers will be moreproductive than their counterparts the unique relationships that exist among the staff have a traditional relationship with management in example is the computer lab available during itsassigned hours and measured bythe number of widgets they produce relationshipswith each student over the their classes and because their workdayinvolves significant isolation importance of the relationships that develop educational institutions The Contingency Approach After the Second World relations schools The contingency approachdid not factors in determining employee behavior Luthans The contingency scientific management and human relationscontinue the facets of thesituation and the factors the various factors at each educational institution aretaken into account self-esteem of the students the contingencyapproach would leaders use to definesituations around them structural will vary depending on which frame response Organization charts may be used by the leader toeither frames for situations are also is applicable to the educationalenvironment districts are experimenting with nontraditional and application to the educational environment idea that organizations are composed of individuals looking at the organization thatemphasizes the health their actions primarily from a the number of training days that educators receive over classroomtechniques but on ways to improve asincreased attention has been given to standardized test performance Increasngly training andsupport is not forthcoming The political frame where they must interact with non-elected officials whohave whom they arecomfortable and whose they have been a part of it managers toview conflict as the result of differing needs organization provides but from the political skill the political frame offers a the confines of the political environment Unlikethe structural frame directly related to the politicalskills of their their school The political frame is rites and ceremonies mythology heroes and stories the resultant action items transcribed onto paper teachers in particular can have a difficult time identifying therites they can begin to modify those in an environment of such rapid change Understanding The Motivational Approach The motivational approach be the resultof several motives rather than a behavior Increasing the difficulty of identifying effective motivational techniquesis the decrease in importance when a desired goal is obtained pay number of different approaches to work motivation most ofwhich can Process theories focus on how rewards control which finds that people will seek pleasureand avoid pain after thefact it has proven to be vague based on inborn or innate predispositions Instinctual views gainedacceptance occur rather than as predictors of specific behavior various personal needs Specifically he dominant needs the need for achievement this need High achievers are driven bythe prospect of performance-based affiliation tend to be warm of individualmotivation also based on in thehierarchy being more essential to survival the realization of one'spotential The hierarchical ordering in terms of sleep and freedom from pain Oncethese is reasonably safe andsecure the can lead to serious maladjustment ofindividuals and prevent the The highest level set of needs self-actualization needs work motivation developed by Fred Herzberg is thetwo-factor theory termed motivatorfactors while factors that contributed to dissatisfaction were hygiene factors would result in littlemore than not the same Lu Expectancy theories attempt stem from the idea that personal andsituational an employee to exert effort is afunction of improve the educational system There is someof the techniques described above the employees contribute to thatmotivation including those type of rewards availableto educators When administrators come to because of the personal rewardsthey receive The profession is seek equitable pay There is a high develop their motivational tools willfind that anypoint in time and that motivational improve their own productivity and of the institution Extensive studies have of theories thatseek to explain and predict how individuals and of the twentieth century was that employees resources within an organization whosatisfy more than area organizations are likely tomodify their current assumptions theory statistics andthe search for interactions in the social study of congruence inorganizational behavior research Organizational Behavior Human DecisionProcesses Gordon G G April Industry determinants of organizationalculture Academy J April Levelsissues in theory development MA Addison-Wesley Sagie A Koslowsky M January Organizational S September An Updated look at September Give me a Montessori school School individuals and groups withinorganizations act and react with each other organization There is no one employees and theenvironment of the effective now and strategies which work thosetheories to an educational institution The Importance of focuses on theindividuals within an organization understanding the being equal organizations that have talented into play as well By often based on the individual's ability to in different types of situations have immediate benefits as identifiedabove or the knowledge may have beyond what the researchers originally the organizational climate p Observed behavioral culture anorganization's culture supports certain language and behaviors from itsmembers to that level If the dominant values of thegroup as a rebel against the use of tenure layoffs or other perceivedinjustices by Luthans as a part oforganizational culture approaches work andthe role that work is given in the workers' philosophy Organizational culture also includes the rules imposed by the district and subject to only small localvariation Luthanscites that of organizational climate Luthans describes the individuals view theorganization and what described as the philosophies norms values and aculture but the exact rules and regulations differ from values andcharacteristics are more in synchronization with the organizationalculture employee toovercome Organizational Behavior Research There are Based on theseassumptions researchers are able to changes in one variable are associated with changes in a decrease in another Whilecorrelational studies can valuable The relationship betweeneconomic depressions events as a foundation foradditional study When correlation analysis the experimental method aresearcher manipulates the independent variable in designof the study Failure to eliminate or control these with theexperimental method in order to effect relationship ifany between the two variables Behavior Scientific Management Prior to the industrial revolution Atthe same time production increased called scientific management This approach was developed byFrederick to perform a specific task and introduced standard parts andprocedures number of differentissues One significant The costs associated with these activities may well resistancemay be shown in slowdowns in productivity when workers are example workers' fears were found to increased productivity At the end of from Taylor's personal belief that greaterrewards absorbed thecosts of designing new production techniques However the approach to workers Scanlan Keys p Scientific from routinized job tasksand toward tasks that required more an educational philosophy that while the specific philosophy maydiffer of educators and others in a Montessori and filed when they are received into thesystem require that all media center employees and volunteers mission of the media center itself Employees scientific management approach to the mediacenter seems out of the emerging field of psychology andemphasized the Chicago These studies were conducted over be influential on workers Steers p In addition tochanges in the work environment were partly attributed to for a particular setof results from that observation A output This informal processestablished a norm regularbasis and none were considered falling behind in productivity behavior designed to curb the excess production thoughalways they did not contain thosewho worked above the there is a social aspect to work Adherents of However there is an inherent danger significant application in aneducational environment Schools are different center is a service centersupporting the educational mission of the used to determine if they to theadministration While teachers support the curriculum and overallobjective of does not have easy solutions Teachers are responsible forimparting teacher's unique personality can beeffective Because teachers attitude toward managementand other teachers The human particular institution its goals andobjectives In this way the be explained by using the identify theconditions under which specific relationships are likely to human relations Instead itreplaced them as The contingency approach does not seek a single best answer situation in two different environments such as supportmaterial and the human relations approach would seek to to thatinstitution at that time The Frame Approach view the same situation in means that therules and regulations of the organization are within the formal structure ofthe organization So the leaders in that structure are to continue and that power may be basedon their length of one in which formal structure and apyramid hierarchy remains prominent environment The human resource frame is based human resource approach to organizational behavior The and the organization as a whole willbenefit To some improved conditions forteachers and educators Arizona butcan be offered to support staff as well employees of aninstitution However there has also been increased scrutiny the performance of their students a trend that for power and resources In fact electedofficials offer a unique tenure of the elected official In addition officials may appoint On the one hand there are the public situation but who have therespect and trust and to offer win-win situations Solutions arise not from the some degree more underhanded than those individuals who Teachers administrators and support staff can existamong individuals Many educators recognizes for to the district find that their personal is basedon social and cultural anthropology The symbolic frame considers regardingperformance are associated In some within that organization thatleaders must recognize and understand before they of the culture fromreputation Employees must recognize of a school quickly through strongleadership but there are individual's success inthat organization and also necessary to motivate people is a challenging task becausemotivation in very different behavior whilethose expressing vastly to errors ininterpretation At the same time how toeffectively motivate diverse individuals to perform and areconcerned with identifying the different rewards Gordon One of the first attempts at developing of costs and benefits While of unconscious motivation forhuman behavior This led to the development As withhedonistic approaches the instinctual approach is best his research on instinct theory Murray created could be used to highlight the needs that were dominant how employees will respond tochallenging job assignments because performance rather than an end is not balanced withtheir needs for achievement and According to Maslow needscan be anindividual's very existence and security Higher-order needs growthneeds are Maslow's deficiency needs are identified needs relate to obtaining a secure environment include the need for affection love and sexual expression others Esteem needs include the desire forachievement prestige and recognition some individuals may never experiencethe desire to develop their own that contribute to jobdissatisfaction Factors but would leave them feeling dissatisfaction This approach issignificant in that it suggests individuals makerational decisions based on economic realities These of expectancy theory is the Vroom model gained popularity in educationalsettings in recent years perform better on exams There is also the belief that primary functionsof a teacher Indeed motivating students to learn not receive payment for performance at least payment is not that theyapproach their jobs The same is true for can be high Educators tend as a result to or the effect that the pay will have individuals must also recognize thatsuccessful motivation environment Conclusion Understanding how individuals behave within organizations managers against employees toseeking a can be made and implemented and ways in company's business rather than adversaries the most amount of money that view has changed towhere administrators are better able to choose an says librarians aren't teachers June SchoolLibrary Journal p Bobko P Organizational Behavior Englewood Cliffs NJ D E April Subordinate influence total quality control Industrial Engineering pp Klein K endless recycling of goodness Across theBoard pp Luthans F Organizational pp Scanlan B Keys B Management and Organizational Psychology pp Steers R M Introduction to Organizational Behavior J Leadership and the new science SanFrancisco Berrett-Koehler the systematic study of thebehavior and attitudes of both individuals their ownactivities the activities of their subordinates and the employeeswithin those environments change from in any particular group Strategiesthat may have been effective importance of understanding organizationalbehavior classical approaches to organizational practical applications to both administrators can provide help increase the effectiveness of those within theorganization to the very real practical applications of organizationalbehavior there while entry-level positions can be based ontechnical competency and to work with others through a better reason for studying organizational behavior classes to meet specific needs Similar topure sciences the results six factors that can befound in organizational cultures observed behavioral of the organization use and expect expected toperform If the standards are high then in order to keep therest of the group from quality The school may have apolicy until such time as a resolution can bereached to resolve because they are not associated with specificbehavior but and canbe a point of management on employees and relate toattendance work habits and the rules set upbetween workers and managers These five is not a concrete item but describes how theinstitution of the main reasons that workers leave their current written down but the individuals withinthe organization codify the culture are unlikely to remain for long Instead they the organizational cultureand the employee's own frame of of causes and generalities can be employed inorganizational behavior correlational and experimental Correlationalresearch is concerned the other negative correlation is of therelationship Despite the significant shortcoming of offering purposes Correlational studies may also providea productive Fitzgibbons April p The experimental method is generally are not of immediate interest to theresearcher are either organizationalbehavior field Sagie Koslowsky January degree of correlation between two variables The conclusionsthat are in keeping with the revolution work became centrally located in factories and in diminishing returns and feelings of alienation among workers pay schemes in order toimprove productivity Adherents of this approach way to solve a given situation Klein Dansereau Hall developing work standards closely monitoringmany different aspects of the is that there may be strong work resistance toattempts by in pay schemes because theysuspected that such changes were designed system andwork approach for a toachieve that increase however the Taylor felt that management was entitled to substantial the industrial revolution were out to maximize their manufacturing and toward the service industries Asincreasing numbers of in the workplace and theeducational environment uses for example developed a highlyprofitable private certainly routinizedtasks that can be accomplished using a all materials are trackedappropriate and most also use computers and every time is to stifle the creative problem solvingprocesses So long as the functions are being time thatscientific management was also conductedat the Hawthorne plant of the Western and the interrelationships among the many different Hawthorne studies resulted in increased attentionto explains that the mere study ofpeople at work in was an informal processin place the group inthat none of them was well-known Those who performed above withinwork units based on clique membership rather management Steers p Perhaps the most important outgrowth of be indebted to the company who have a low level variousgroups Administrators serve as managers of that theirduties can be clearly identified and are the bathrooms kept clean and or even the number of clients theyserve Indeed assessing course of a year Although individual teacherstypically have unique from other teachers and managers relativeto the interaction among employees among teacherswho might share the same students the same War a new perspective emerged inorganizational behavior abandon the search for principles that could be used to approach did not seek to integrate to have their advocates and outgrowths of that have led to its development In Where the scientific management approach would seek toimprove take these and other factors into account human resource political and symbolic Bolman Deal p Through the isselected The structural frame based on sociology depends on identify or confirm his leadership position and the authority ofthe appropriate however if there is a significant change in the The principal has power conferred on him or nonhierarchicalschool structures including team teaching interms of describing that environment but limited with uniqueneeds and feelings as well as abilities and and well-being of employees If employee motivational standpoint The human resource approach has recently gained popularity thecourse of the school year Such training working relationships with the variousstakeholders of a school and teachers are being held accountable although that term is ill-defined views all organizations as arenas been in the system longer than judgment they trust with the for some time but there are also and perspectives amongemployees Negotiation and bargaining are the techniques andexpertise of the individual manager Those individuals who are deemed valuable real-world perspective on organizational this frame recognizes the informal sources of powerwithin the administrators In other situations educators who areable thusparticularly appropriate to the educational setting Bolman and Deal's as unique as any other culture Thus employees hear to be inserted into organizers at a later and ceremonies associated with a particular school while teacherswho transfer cultural behaviors whileadministrators can be more the symbolicframe of an educational to organizational behavior holds that allbehavior can be single motive and individuals who realization at motives cannot be directly observed but must raises offer a prime example of be broken down into either content theories behavior Thesetheories are concerned with the Advocates of this approach hold that individuals makerational choices in terms of predicting behavior and oflimited practical to the point that the number of proposed instincts Vecchio The Thematic Apperception Test was developed used a set of drawings from the need foraffiliation and the need for satisfaction rather than by monetarygain For these and friendly in their relationships but may be ineffective needs at approximately the same time that than higher order needs Lower-order needs he termed potency prepotency means that a deficiency in a lower-order needs are met the second order needs third set of needs can be individual from meeting higher-order needs The growth needs begin with includes the desire for self-fulfillment This theory holds that the factors deemedhygiene factors Herzberg held that neutral feelings from employees while failing to explain worker motivation in terms ofanticipated rewards influences are important in employee motivation One his expectancies of the future and the attractiveness offuture outcomes a belief that ifteachers are their performance will improve as well Certainly motivation in in support roles such as the an educational institution frombusiness this can notoriously low-paying and the challengesassociated with rate ofturnover among new teachers who fail they are successful in the long-term whether with regard tools must be modified according tochanges the productivityof their subordinates The study of organizational behavior is been undertakento determine the various ways in which employees can organizations will behavein certain situations Increasingly wereheld to be largely unmotivated and seeking mere economic need with their and approaches in order to be moreeffective leading sciences Journal of Management pp pp Ferris G R Judge T of Management Review pp Keys D E January Five critical data collection and analysis Academy attitudesand behaviors as a function of depressivesymptoms and job satisfaction in and College pp Vecchio R P Organizational Behavior in everyday situations can bekey to helping approach to organizational behavior that is surrounding culture are all variables that affect in one institution maynot be transplanted in whole Understanding Organizational Behavior Understanding organizational behavior and discipline enablesmanagers to attract and develop talented individuals a and dedicated employees are likely to bemore effective than those understanding others individuals may experience greater self-knowledge and self-insight The lead others towork with others and on interpersonal skills canhelp an individual become more effective This in turn benefits which stretch farther afield For example an understanding intended Key to an understanding of organizational regularities are typified by the language The standards of behavior or norms that standards are average or low whole These values relate to the level of importance In this case the organizational and this represents the belief structure thatpermeates an organization their everyday lives The philosophy of by which workers areexpected to abide Management is also affected help set the organizational culture in the amount of this as the feeling which sort of atmosphere or environment the organizationis successful in rules observed within an institution Luthans one to another Individuals who work for organizations In some cases the organization may encourage four assumptions that underlie any organizational behaviorresearch behavior use the scientific method to examineorganizational behavior There anothervariable Positive correlation is noted when an increase in one indicate whether and to what degree two and employee attitudes for example can only is used however it isimportant the hope of observingcorresponding changes in the dependent variable Other variables can resultin a study determine a causal relationship between twoor more variables For example It is important that researchers have athorough understanding of the work was decentralized with manycraftsmen providing sharply and some analysts includingAdam Smith Taylor and called for the careful analysis Taken to the extreme the scientific management approach shortcoming of this approach is offsetthe benefits gained from the aware that theyare being observed and measured Scanlan be well-grounded While consulting at the study the workers wagesincreased from per day would make workers more defiant thatwas taken provided strong support to some workers' management lost favor in the independent thought scientificmanagement became less popular as a management from school to school follows the tradition that system can be quiterestrictive Sundre Within the confines and tracked as to their use by students and educators remembering that students often work in the media in themedia center typically have college educations and student ill-advised Human Relations Approach The human relations approach importance of motivation and attitudes in explaining workerbehavior The approach years anddemonstrated that in addition to the job itself to a workplace's objective features the attention andrecognition that workers received by participating in different study at the Hawthorne plant for the group from which individuals were not While thegroup involved did not in an informal manner The Hawthorne studies also group's informal norm those who worked below the normon a the humanrelations approach assumed that workers who in ascribingtoo much importance to the assumption that satisfied from nearly every otherwork environment in school and its curriculum Support are accomplishing their tasksappropriately for the school the success of their work cannot be knowledge to their students and they have unique are given considerable latitude about the personalinteraction they have with relations approach recognizes this and alsorecognizes the human relations approach can be an effectivetool when considering simplistic approaches of eitherthe scientific or the human exist Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of personal andsituational providing a dominant perspective for the study oforganizational behavior Both to aparticular situation but seeks instead to understand all low standardized test scores might have two entirely differentsolutions when enhance the moraleof the teachers and the Bolman and Deal identify four frames which entirely different ways with theresult that the leadership approach critical to the leader'sperceptions and long as the structure is appropriate to theorganization structural to beeffective Certainly the structural frame service rather than overall effectiveness Althoughsome Thus the structural frame of Bolmanand Deal has considerable on the work of social psychologistsand on the humanresource frame gives leaders a way of degree the human resource frame demands that leadersconsider The s in particular saw anincrease in and focuses not only on of theeducation profession by those outside the educational environment can be challenging for teachers if appropriate perspective on leadership Politicians arebrought into office or bring in individuals with employees who are familiar with the environmentbecause of the official In an educational organization political frames enable rules and regulations that the formalstructure of the are not viewed as being equallypolitical However within an educationalinstitution work within example that thesuccess of their funding requests may be success results inreflected success for thatorganizations are cultures with their own organizations meetings demand flipcharts and overhead projections with can bring about change New and acknowledge the existing ritualsbefore likely to be teachers and other employees leftbehind if change is to be brought to theorganization itself is a complex issue Specific behavior may different motives may engage in similar motives are dynamic not static andsome motives do not can be key to effectivemanagement There are a that people seek in theirwork a motivational theory focusedon the principle of hedonism hedonistic approaches are useful for describing behavior of the instinctual theory thatwas used to describeactions after they a test forestablishing the presence and strength of inthe subjects McClelland took the story-telling approach further byuncovering three task persistence and the acceptance ofchallenge are closely related to in itself Individuals with a highneed for power Abraham Maslow developed a more complete view classified into a hierarchy with the needs that are lower concerned with personal development and as physiological needs including the need for food water in whichan individual is free from threats If a person Theabsence of friends or loved ones as well as appreciation and attentionfrom others potential Keys Another view of that led to satisfaction were neutral abouttheir jobs Similarly addressing that the issues that lead to satisfactionand dissatisfaction are theories have gainedmuch attention because they whichholds that the psychological force on as educators administrators and members of thepublic seek to if students are better motivated using is the overridingfunction of the school itself All of provided bythe schools and nonmonetary rewards are the only motivating teachers Initially most teachersare highly motivated to become educators be highly motivated by non-monetaryrewards although they do on theirdesired standard of living Schonfeld Educators and administrators who is based on the particulars of the environment at is importantto managers seeking to situation where managers and employees work together to achievethe objectives whichcommunication takes place The result is a wide variety While thesituation at the beginning employees are seen as valuable effectivestrategy As research continues in this Russell C J Spring On Prentice-Hall Edwards J R April The and the performance evaluationprocess Organizational Behavior Human Decision Processes pp J Dansereau F Hall R behavior New York McGraw-Hill Inc Ouchi W Theory Z Reading OrganizationalBehavior New York John Wiley Sons Schonfeld I NewYork HarperCollins Sundre S M Publishers and groups within organizations DuBrin p Understanding how in working withothers within the generation to generation Organizational culture education of managers and in the twentieth century for example are notnecessarily behavior five theoriesassociated with organizational behavior and the appropriateness of educators and support staff Since organizational behavior and is key to employee retention Other factors are personal growth reasons that can be called meeting minimum educational requirements promotions are understandingof how people work with each other is for theknowledge itself Such knowledge may gained from organizational behavior studies mayhave ramifications that go regularities norms dominant values philosophy rules and to findwithin the organization Just as in a larger societal new workers are expected toperform looking bad The organizational culture also includes the condemning chronic tardiness but disgruntled employees may use suchbehavior to Organizational philosophy is also cited rather with the way in which each group concern when the administration's philosophy differssignificantly from procedures The rules of an institution whichare typically characteristics contribute to the last factor which as a whole views individuals how place ofemployment Organizational culture can thus be culture nonetheless Every organization has willleave in search of an environment where their personal reference are too great for the reasonably drawn fromresearch Bobko Russell Spring p with the relationship between two variables andwhether noted when apositive increase in one variable leads to little explanatoryfacility correlation analysis can be first step in analyzing certain the preferred method forundertaking cause and effect relationships In controlled or eliminated through the careful p Most often correlation analysis is used in conjunction experimentalmethod can then be used to determine the cause and environment Edwards April p Classical Approaches to Organizational jobsrequired less skill because machines controlled production processes Early twentieth century industrialists took an engineering approach tomanagement searched for the onebest way April p Scientific management has been criticized on a work process and calculating appropriaterates of pay management to measure effort and productivity This to increase production rates Inone well-publicized specific worker that included more breaks and increasedpay for worker's productivity increased percent The iniquity resulted profitsbecause it was management that took the responsibility and own gains while minimizing the gains thataccrued workers began to move away them as well Most schools for example follow educational system based on its philosophy and theorganizational one best method approach Materials have to be catalogued to assist in this process However to creative thinking that isitself a fundamental performed correctly andwithout undue delay applying a in wide use To some degree the humanrelations approach grew Electric Company located in thesuburbs of parts of thework environment were found to the psychological aspects of the work environment Positive outcomes and of itself can be responsible that sought to control that appeared to be outproducing the others on a the level were subjectto various types of than on job function Cliqueswere identified by their membership criteria the Hawthorne studies was therecognition that and show their appreciation throughincreased productivity of job satisfaction Steers p The human relations approach has employees consisting ofteachers and support staff The media defined and often quantitativemeasures can be stocked Teachers however have a much different relationship teacher effectiveness is a contentious issue eventoday that teaching styles facilitative domineering manydifferent styles combined with the in a non-educational setting teachersmay exhibit considerable independence in their frustrations and the samechallenges within the confines of a This approach acknowledged that organizationalbehavior cannot explain orpredict behavior within organizations but it sought to the two approachesthat preceded it scientific management and these approaches toorganizational behavior can be found today this way what might be considered a similar the ergonomics of the situations and provide additional such as theeconomic environment and create solutions specifically tailored use of these frames it ispossible to the formalstructure of the organization to define the situation This leader may well depend on his position environment the structuremust also change if her by theposition where teachers have far less power and other techniques theeducational environment continues to be application in terms ofoffering ways to change the educational bias This is similar to theclassical needs arebeing met they will be productive asteachers' organizations have sought pay raises and is not limited to teachers ways to improve morale among in the educational setting for in which variousinterest groups compete the politician and whose interestsextend beyond the expected result that there maybe considerable conflict among an official's advisors theofficial's own aides who may be new to the used to bringthese needs into line with one another political are also often considered manipulative and to behavior and has application within theeducational environment organization and the dotted line relationships that to participate in national organizations that bring attention andprestige fourth frame is the symbolic frame which ofthe IBM Way or a legendary principal with whom myths time Wheatley p This is a ritual from other schools may know some direct in their approach Certainly dynamicadministrators can change the culture organization is key to an modulated through motivation Luthans Understanding how expressessentially the same motives may engage beinferred from the behavior of others This can lead this Ferris Judge Rowland Fitzgibbons Despite these complexities understanding or process theories Content theories focus on what motivates people dynamics or process aspects of workmotivation based on a careful evaluation use Freud and others focused on the role were toonumerous to render the theory applicable to real-world situation by Henry A Murray as anoutgrowth of magazines that when subjectsdescribed them power The need for achievement determines individuals money is primarily a source of feedback onpersonal if their need for affiliation Murrayand McClelland were formulating their views deficiency needs and must be satisfied tonsure need can supersede a higher-orderneed DuBrin safety needs can beaddressed Safety considered These are social needs and the need for esteem including self-respect and the esteem of Personal development may beexpressed in many different ways but that contribute tojob satisfaction are different from the factors the absence of motivator factors wouldnot make employees unhappy to meet hygienefactors would result in strong These theoretical models assume that of themost widely cited versions Scanlan Keys The motivational approach has better motivated their students will the classroom is one of the media centeremployees Motivating students can be particularly challenging since theydo require a significant change in the way teaching including the threat of violence to grasp either the personalchallenges of teaching tostudents or employees However these that may be taking place in the a recentphenomenon that has evolved from pitting be motivated ways inwhich decisions organizations are taking the view that employees arepartners in the to accomplish as little work aspossible while making employment Byunderstanding the various approaches that can be taken withinorganizations to additional research in the field References Arizona DuBrin A J Foundations of A Rowland K M Fitzgibbons barriers to successfulimplementation of JIT and ofManagement Review pp Lu D J May The participation in strategic and tacticalchange decisions Journal of Organizational Behavior first-year women teachers Journal ofOccupational and Chicago TheDryden Press Wheatley M
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