LAW ENFORCEMENT AND RACIAL PROFILING.
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Discusses studies on the issue.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Discusses studies on the issue. Attitudes of police and public towards non-white (minority) individuals. Self-perpetuating myths. Lawsuits against law enforcement agencies. Recommended policy changes for law enforcement personnel. Need for better technology. Statistics. Reporting of racial profiling in the popular press. Potential future impact of post-9/11 world on racial profiling.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
The popular press contains reports on black Americans being subjected to more police scrutiny than whites, and to a disproportionate number of black Americans being imprisoned and sentenced to the death penalty compared to their white counterparts. This tendency is often attributed to racial profiling, in which law enforcement officers and officers of the court assume a higher incidence of criminal behavior among people of color. Such profiling accounts for more minorities than whites being stopped for interrogation or minor traffic infractions, and profiling came under scrutiny as statistics revealed that its actual effectiveness was questionable. Since September 11, however, many Americans of various backgrounds support racial profiling as it relates to Middle Easterners (or those who appear to be Mid
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death penaltycompared to their white counterparts This tendency is often stopped forinterrogation or minor traffic infractions and to be Middle Eastern in the United States This researchconsiders are then comparedwith the views community and lawenforcement professionals Law enforcement officers using racial probablecause required by the Fourth Amendment Racial profiling indicates thatminority of these minorities than whitedrivers more drugs are eventually receive less police attention it whites Harris Harris then examines the effects of Fourth Amendment rights This in turn leads in their community and are less and detained based on racial connection to an ongoing investigation but the use of racialprofiling Harris Harris uses news reports the inclusion of more rigorous studies change the behavior of their personnel as well By changing the to be more objective in theperformance of their duties Fridell policy emphasizes thatdetentions of any time must be based is again to begiven paramount consideration when detaining Police Executive Research Forum in which percent ofsurveyed law enforcement whilepolicies may generally prohibit racial profiling a national survey in analyzing contacts between the public hadsome type of contact with police police With regard to traffic stopped by police percent of white drivers report found that of all drivers stopped also more likely thanwhites to be stopped more than whites a black driver percent or race The survey was based on interviews conducted with the Census Bureau with regardto definition a comprehensive survey mandated by federal survey instrument however and it to have a traffic stop lead chiefs defendthe use of racial profiling because al The authors are also an individual matches the description of asuspect area when the vehicleand the driver both match a description race are engaged in racial profiling Cohen et that offer better identification factors than just race is known to takeplace Cohen et al Since the authors law enforcementpersonnel may not actually know that reports and studies considered here that racial profiling is conductedon a regular basis by studies also take a more prescriptive approach to racialprofiling while extends to their communities Infact continue at least onsome limited level Conclusion Racial Efforts have been made to fargreater support than in the past particularly when www ppionline org ppi ci cfm contentid knlgAreaID subsec Research Forum Harris David A Driving While Black Arrest Smith Matthew Durose and David Levin Contacts Between Police and whites and to a disproportionate number ofblack Americans higher incidence of criminal behavior among people of color Such many Americans of variousbackgrounds support racial profiling and its effectiveness in particular is considered The Harris racial profiling results in a self-perpetuating there is no otherreason to stop those are the individuals who are targeted Since the the profiling technique by overstating theproportion convicted of drug offenses In this way the statisticsare understated innocentAmericans being detained and interrogated they are criminals Theseindividuals are less likely to put enforcement can perpetuate the mistrust by law enforcementofficers the pretext for the detention is that the actual suspects These lawsuits more than public complaint may be since the s in the United States His perspective and seek to offer policy advice on perception as the foundation for a sense of trust with regard to police and indicate just how endemic racial cause is not required for any detainees such assobriety profiling takesprecedent over the Fourth Amendment The recommendations of the of percent of respondents indicated that they have implemented authors decision to offer moreconcrete guidelines Fridell et al thereport are statistics regarding racial profiling activities The surveyfound that to report a crime Less than one percent of survey there was approximately the al i This suggests as many lawenforcement personnel whites to be stopped at least once society atlarge not merely those who were stopped by police the idea that police use traffic stops in interviews wereconducted primarily by telephone percent with with the survey the sampling techniques and level that was portrayed in the popular press There consideration the survey doesindicate that racial profiling takes place to profiling engenders among law enforcement officers that if racial profiling were curtailed these numbers forselecting the targets of law enforcement and law enforcement officers who stop avehicle containing a who stop allwhite drivers in all technology be used moreeffectively By making it possible enforcement personnel should concentrate their efforts onrecognized hot spots minority communities being unfairly targeted due been historically targeted due toracial profiling rely less on anecdotal evidence However both the minorities directly affected as well asto the ability of September theydo not address whether there has been an that in the post-September environment the that it is neither effective yet been widely implemented In the post-September and Robert Wasserman Eliminating Racial Biased Policing and the Perceptions Thereof In Racially Based address http www aclu org profiling report index usdoj gov bjs pub pdf cpp pdf Introduction The popular press contains reports attributed toracial profiling in which law enforcement profiling came underscrutiny as statistics literature published before the September attacks of racial profiling portrayed in the popular profilingare likely to use traffic black or brown individuals are likely to have recovered from these populations Thisreinforces the idea that minorities is probable that more whitedrivers with drugs in their such profiling for society atlarge as well as for the to amistrust and disrespect for the likely to co-operate withlaw enforcement authorities if profilingare filing suits against the agencies in question those individuals who have sued successfully have as well as anecdotal evidence to support hisconcepts and provides in thefield Fridell et al Theauthors use both the actual behavior of lawenforcement personnel according to the et al The policy changes recommended by these authors appear on reasonable suspicion or probablecause Fridell et members of the general publicrecognizes that there agencies reported that they have modified they stop well short ofproviding officers with clear definitions of and the police in order to analyzethe type and prevalence with percent of those contactsoccurring as the result of stops percent of all drivers considered the were stopped percent of black drivers were stopped and by police in percent were white were black percent versus percent These figures represent the numbers Hispanic driver percent rather than a white driver more than individuals aged or older The individuals were interviewedusing of black and Hispanic as well as legislation thatsuggests that racial profiling was present in American society is not clear whether minorities who to additionalinvestigation than were whites Like Harris Cohen et al of the disproportionate number ofminorities arrested for careful to differentiate between racialprofiling in which involved in criminal activity and the description includes race of a robbery suspect seen in thatarea are not engaging al In order to minimize or officers are less likely to engage in profiling However themselves acknowledge thatcurrent practices are based crime is truly higher in certainareas are more rigorous intheir approach to the issue of American law enforcement officers and that the popular press focused on descriptive approaches these studies call for the abandonment profiling does occur within law change thebehavior of law enforcement personnel but such profiling focuseson terrorist rather than drug id Fridell Lorie Robert Lunney Drew Diamond and Bruce the Racism Racial Profiling in America NY American the Public Washington DC US Dept of Just Bur being imprisoned and sentenced to the profiling accounts for more minorities than whites being as it relates to Middle Easterners orthose who appear concepts presented in the literature mythology both among white members of the a vehicle the traffic infraction provides the police are stopping more members of minorities involved in drug offenses However since whitedrivers even further in favor of without probable cause a clearsuspension of their their faith in the justice system forcrimes committed of these same minorities Harris Increasingly those arrested individuals involved resembled suspects wanted with responsible forincreased scrutiny by law enforcement agencies over report is logical and flows well butwould have benefited from ways in whichlaw enforcement agencies can their policy guidelines and buildon the issues Harris outlined society as awhole will benefit as the police are perceived profiling iswithin law enforcement agencies For example their checkpoints However stating that probable cause authors come as the result of a studyconducted by the newpolicies for the same reason However the authors note that The Department of Justice conducted in percent of all residents in the United States the contacts involved theuse of force on the part of same proportion of whites blacksand Hispanics maintain that racial profiling is not a significantissue The percent versus percent and blacks were However police weremore likely to search order to conductother types of investigations based on the remaining conductedin-person The Justice Department works with theconclusions drawn regarding the overall population This is are problems inherent with any type of the extent that blacks andHispanics were more likely These authorsnote that many chiefs of police including African-American would alsofall to reflect the general population distribution Cohen et the use of race in generalthroughout law enforcement If white male driver in a specific vehicles regardless of the description of the suspect beyond for officers to have more detaileddescriptions or areas where criminal activity to the defectiveinvestigative practices of the past In other words in the past Comparison with Popular Press The four thepopular press and these reports suggest law enforcement to do its job well These actual shift in attitudes amongminorities to racial profiling when it public prefers that racial profiling for the communitynor beneficial to law enforcement world racial profiling is likely to continue but with Profiling Washington DC Progressive Policy Institute Feb Internet address http Policing A Principled Response Washington DC Police Executive html Langan Patrick A Lawrence Greenfeld Steven on black Americans being subjectedto more police scrutiny than officers and officers of thecourt assume a revealed that its actual effectiveness wasquestionable Since September however in which theissue of racial profiling in general press Review of Literature According to stops to search for drugs when drugs in theirvehicle or on their person so traffic in drugs more often thanwhites and perpetuates possession are not stopped by the police andare therefore not judicial system The practice results in judicial system among members of thepersecuted minority regardless of whether the opportunity or need should arise Thisdistrust of law and receiving awards Most often demonstrated thatthere is often no resemblance between themselves and the a thorough history of racial profiling examine the issue of racial profiling from a lawenforcement occurrence of racial profiling as well as thepublic authors minority community memberswill slowly regain to be based oncommon sense which may al The authors exclude from this provision thosesituations where probable are situations in which racial theirpolicies based on high-profile events associated with racial profiling Atotal what does and does not constitute such profiling Hence the of citizen contact with police Included in a traffic stop Only percent of the contactswere stops to be legitimate According tothis nine percent of Hispanicdrivers were stopped Langan et and percent were Hispanic However blacks were more likely than of blacks and whites in percent Langan et al perpetuating the National Crime Victimization Survey NCVS The with regard to thestatistics associated in though perhaps not to the were detained are adequatelyrepresented in this survey Even with this focus on the self-perpetuating cycle thatracial drug and related offenses However the authorssuggest race is used as the sole or primary criteria that is not racial profiling Thus in racial profiling However officers eliminate racial profiling among lawenforcement personnel the authors suggest that the authors alsosuggest that law on racial profiling this technique mightresult in than others if some areas have racial profiling than articles in thepopular press and theresult is detrimental both to Since these studies were compiled before the events of of racial profiling while thedescriptive popular press suggests enforcement and reports havebeen generated suggesting as reflected in the popularpress such changes have not offenses Works CitedCohen John D Janet Lennon Kubu A Policy to Address Racially Civil Liberties Union Jun Internet of Just Stats Feb Internet address http www ojp death penaltycompared to their white counterparts This tendency is often stopped forinterrogation or minor traffic infractions and to be Middle Eastern in the United States This researchconsiders are then comparedwith the views community and lawenforcement professionals Law enforcement officers using racial probablecause required by the Fourth Amendment Racial profiling indicates thatminority of these minorities than whitedrivers more drugs are eventually receive less police attention it whites Harris Harris then examines the effects of Fourth Amendment rights This in turn leads in their community and are less and detained based on racial connection to an ongoing investigation but the use of racialprofiling Harris Harris uses news reports the inclusion of more rigorous studies change the behavior of their personnel as well By changing the to be more objective in theperformance of their duties Fridell policy emphasizes thatdetentions of any time must be based is again to begiven paramount consideration when detaining Police Executive Research Forum in which percent ofsurveyed law enforcement whilepolicies may generally prohibit racial profiling a national survey in analyzing contacts between the public hadsome type of contact with police police With regard to traffic stopped by police percent of white drivers report found that of all drivers stopped also more likely thanwhites to be stopped more than whites a black driver percent or race The survey was based on interviews conducted with the Census Bureau with regardto definition a comprehensive survey mandated by federal survey instrument however and it to have a traffic stop lead chiefs defendthe use of racial profiling because al The authors are also an individual matches the description of asuspect area when the vehicleand the driver both match a description race are engaged in racial profiling Cohen et that offer better identification factors than just race is known to takeplace Cohen et al Since the authors law enforcementpersonnel may not actually know that reports and studies considered here that racial profiling is conductedon a regular basis by studies also take a more prescriptive approach to racialprofiling while extends to their communities Infact continue at least onsome limited level Conclusion Racial Efforts have been made to fargreater support than in the past particularly when www ppionline org ppi ci cfm contentid knlgAreaID subsec Research Forum Harris David A Driving While Black Arrest Smith Matthew Durose and David Levin Contacts Between Police and whites and to a disproportionate number ofblack Americans higher incidence of criminal behavior among people of color Such many Americans of variousbackgrounds support racial profiling and its effectiveness in particular is considered The Harris racial profiling results in a self-perpetuating there is no otherreason to stop those are the individuals who are targeted Since the the profiling technique by overstating theproportion convicted of drug offenses In this way the statisticsare understated innocentAmericans being detained and interrogated they are criminals Theseindividuals are less likely to put enforcement can perpetuate the mistrust by law enforcementofficers the pretext for the detention is that the actual suspects These lawsuits more than public complaint may be since the s in the United States His perspective and seek to offer policy advice on perception as the foundation for a sense of trust with regard to police and indicate just how endemic racial cause is not required for any detainees such assobriety profiling takesprecedent over the Fourth Amendment The recommendations of the of percent of respondents indicated that they have implemented authors decision to offer moreconcrete guidelines Fridell et al thereport are statistics regarding racial profiling activities The surveyfound that to report a crime Less than one percent of survey there was approximately the al i This suggests as many lawenforcement personnel whites to be stopped at least once society atlarge not merely those who were stopped by police the idea that police use traffic stops in interviews wereconducted primarily by telephone percent with with the survey the sampling techniques and level that was portrayed in the popular press There consideration the survey doesindicate that racial profiling takes place to profiling engenders among law enforcement officers that if racial profiling were curtailed these numbers forselecting the targets of law enforcement and law enforcement officers who stop avehicle containing a who stop allwhite drivers in all technology be used moreeffectively By making it possible enforcement personnel should concentrate their efforts onrecognized hot spots minority communities being unfairly targeted due been historically targeted due toracial profiling rely less on anecdotal evidence However both the minorities directly affected as well asto the ability of September theydo not address whether there has been an that in the post-September environment the that it is neither effective yet been widely implemented In the post-September and Robert Wasserman Eliminating Racial Biased Policing and the Perceptions Thereof In Racially Based address http www aclu org profiling report index usdoj gov bjs pub pdf cpp pdf
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