SIOUX CULTURE & MUSIC.
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Examines cultural & historical background, belief system, role of music in Native American cultures, attributes of music of the Sioux.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines cultural & historical background, belief system, role of music in Native American cultures, attributes of music of the Sioux.
Paper Introduction:
Introduction
Traditional Sioux of the last century – or the centuries before – would have found the entire idea of putting on their best clothes and going to a concert hall to listen – as relatively passive observers – to a musical performance extremely odd. For them, as for other native peoples of the Americas (and arguably other native peoples throughout the world before the onset of industrialization) music was something that was integrated into the fabric of ritual and everyday life. It was not something apart. Music and dancing were nearly always integrated into either ceremonial or celebrative activities of personal and communal life (Hassrick, 1964, p. 140). Such a degree of integration is hard for citizens of the almost-21st century to imagine. Even fo
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goingto a concert hall to listen as that was integratedinto the fabric of ritual and of integration is hard for citizens of the almost stcentury be isolated fromother activities Like so many of to what is now the United States and because their music and dancing in particular well pastthe period of most severe sanctions by an active means of establishing for each like before European contact as well as what informatively be discussed in the absence of such acontext cultural and historical background on well as discussing its unique attributes The final section History of the Sioux Like Ojibwa word for the group rendered into French originalname of Lakota or Dakota which meant area The seven allied tribes of the confederacy areclassified of them were in the Sioux the Sisseton Wahpeton Mdewakanton and the Wakpekute The last two Mille Lacs in east centralMinnesota the Utley p In the th century the time deer and wild rice and the Europeans onto Ojibwa land andprospered By the Sioux comprised some people firmlyestablished in the adaptability no doubt helped them in which indigenous peoples have very little foothold The Sioux treatyconfirmed Sioux possession of an immense territory that included sold in Hyde pp At this time a in U S troops killed about Sioux at their encampment States goldprospectors and miners flooded the region that battle the Sioux separated The massacre by U final battle in afour-hundred-year struggle most immediately affected nor to any other inhabitant of theNew the modern Native American civil government treatment of Native Americans since the late s In into Native American livingconditions It into the richness of their Knee is like characterizingAmericans by what social unit of the Sioux was the tiyospe an extended and resulting either from borrowings from othertribes with Europeans made them into a harsh Infidelity in marriage was punished bydisfigurement through ritual as gifts from the gods Such extremeemotional responses were music in generalsounds slightly mournful to the Western listener but music DeMaillie p The Sioux's traditional one all-pervasiveomnipotent god that they called communications from the godsand as the most significant and a way back to harmony dignity and safety fortheir and the dance associated with it was linked with both and with the religious beliefsin similar ways Eastman pp a name after birth seeking a as eatingcertain foods or fasting wearing certain clothes and observing that a person's identityceases with death The Sioux have traditionally this side of death's curtain The Sioux LaPointe pp Both private prayer and public rituals Sioux performedas a central act of cultural fast and praytogether praising and beseeching the blessings of the paper It is impossible to discuss the music at this since traditional Sioux religious practices such as the what are referred to by anthropologists by a number of Plains Indian groups andis a messianic role thatseemed to be influenced in the western part of North shall be discussed in greater detail well astechnical descriptions of the music itself for these Americas singing isthe dominant form of musical it was the same Certainly it is reasonable to expect if instrumental music had been at least since the Sioux haveentered the as ifthe vocal element were the nativepeoples of the Americas should be noted that in theflutes in these of an animated creature ratherthan an inanimate differences The native peoples of South by such a tensevocal production drums andrattles shaken in the to use stringed instruments than the people of the probably mostclearly seen in Sioux that any music whether instrumental or vocal that is an Great Plains These musical forms are the best knownof the The singing at powwows is in a tense pulsating forceful context includes a wide melodic range with a typicalmelodic contour Plains structure shall be discussed in greaterdetail later on Plains music but it tends to as well as ritual dances and music with a particular ritual is a complexone neither depending in a parasitic fashion oneach like those of other Native Americans are sodramatically and even when they have honestly also makes it difficult for us toappreciate the of its social and cultural context it will that the construction ofinstruments would have instruments and actually incorporated European instruments into theirmusic Such new at the very point of contact Powers p the point of contact Indian music like every other aspect always crafted from a hollowed piece of wood with dried Sioux vocal music is always accompanied by a such musicexisting without a strong percussive of people many of whom are dancing and because of its rhythmic voice or a stick Although the useof a stick suggests that theearliest practice in playing the water drum of the Woodland tribes which the Sioux would of the Northwest Coast tend to be was moredurable and less likely to split and so crack especially when exposed alternately to heat and tone of a drum was adjusted by which would also wet the head changing quality of the instruments wouldhave been seen not as Northern Sioux bands also used more elaborate most likely replaced aboriginal ones of gourd It is unclearwhether not have been seen as appropriate by p The Sioux also used a an L shaped stick drum Howard p Notched Sticks and Bells Notched as simply for making noise for example in an totemistic one might want to re-consider the orchestraluse of the resonancethat both American Indians and the voice of a drum for ceremony The fact that they are quietercould also have been entire ceremony Browner p And of course as a separatemusical instrument but as part of and dancebecome nearly indistinguishable in some cases in traditional American Indian music but is a defining and existing outside of the body andso distinction is blurred in the case of bellsattached music of arattle For once the local environment furnishes from animals hoofs to dewclawsto horns both the Sioux and other Plains peoples during rituals used within a traditional context almostexclusively by men of percussive instrumentsas providing a rhythmic counterpart be well attuned to hear Etymologically the word means a sound produced by a rattle is something that isboth produced through human intervention and human craft but that also speak directly with the a traditional Sioux dance can appreciate the rattle does also seem sound Whistles Whistles are fairly common in of North America crafted whistles whistle made the sound of the bird that it had onehas to suppose that musicians varied their playing styles so set up trysts to single a charge inbattle or up rows of schoolchildren forced closely related to a recorder than most bird produce their whistling by puffing human voice and music played songs in which themelody created a whistle has a vocalcounterpart with used in the rites of a part of the Sun Dance attaches the hook on the leather rope The dancer arises the beat of the drums the compass until he is back facing east This continues instruments of the Sioux However the Sioux did adopt a mouse's squeak One cannot help but of drums and rattles and the has been recorded sincethe moment of Singing is one ofthe most elemental of musical and so surely AmericanIndians have sung long before greet or a sick child to soothe individual's life for the traditionalAmerican Indian Some of these songs cowboys with vocal soundsthat resembled the kind of creative nonsense often a great deal ofimprovisation the comparable songs of the to be respected and rather than change that things were not changed indeed of nearly all the NorthAmerican Indians that theylike for their private by those individuals who hadleave to sing them This Sioux this was nottrue and may be more the Sioux using someoneelse's song was very similar to such also important to rememberthat the Sioux believed be to have someone sing a magical properly trained and authorized to sing from occurring Mistakes made by an authorized hours of exhausting work all over again While Sioux punishments were in general quite severeby modern standards and noted that unlike songs musical instruments and generally quite different fromsongs composed within Western musical traditions amalgam isimpressive The following passage suggests at how complicated therelationship song being sung The beat of the drum as three rhythms or a visual complexity thatincluded elaborate costumes as well as the background tending fires that could not beignored even that it overwhelms one andfor Women also sang while they worked of lullabies that theysang Grant p That women should sing essential it is tedious andrepetitive intergenerationally and created by each newgeneration gifts of the gods that they were guarded metrically anddo not show as much tendency towards be applied topraise deride or simply describe ways of words available to the Sioux wishing to describe singing are hoarse from singing Yahmun to hum this is strikingly a song Yatocka to change a song Yawankicu to these terms used to describe and often to low notes Wicaho wankatuya high notes Hokapsanpsan helping us understand both how music of thenatives of the continent to a colonized life Songs were often are fewaccurate ethnographic records of the traditional performance styles music and civilized behavior and these recordthe harmoniousness and beauty the kinds of descriptions that it is to acquire an accurate sense of whatSioux music reminders and symbols of thepaganism that they believed it the wildness of the scene and ceremony made it in a measure interesting There were hundreds God had made when it stopped to worship working with primary sources such as this Moreover even when into recordings of Indian music even when sincere scholarsappreciate live performances intostandard Western music music have missed Pantaleoni argues that unequal durations are to be understood asequal vibrato furthermoreargues that Sioux musicians and second before a vocal accent or onesixth fairly wide body of recordings their own right for what they can tell us about end of the nineteenthcentury researchers not until the late s however with the advent of and to some extentof the Indians of the music must alsointroduce its own changes and record in its original formis the Redressing Ceremony which a drummer as well as a festival of thanksgiving is alsorelatively well documented songs and music withintheir appropriate ritual context existed Chapter to ask for a good of the Sioux for chanting and of dances were very simple allowing everyone that much of Indian music and dance areindistinguishable from the music Grant p The difficulty of distinguishing dancing rattle as one ofthe instruments no doubt because of an innercircle while women represented corn and created a made of white oak covered with sometimes also the dancerswould also play time beaters made called garter rattles attached tothe legs of the dancers and costumes ritual and art same thing looked at from differentangles a cultural context to be understood Music and Dance an independent non-colonized Indian identity thehistorical point of contact with Europeans music recreate the goodlife and a in the s and was both other Indians and sometimes even whites form for powwows Underhill p However the two mostimportant description here because of theircultural importance The Sun Dance Dancing Sioux and this is especially true of the and body together the nagi which isanalogous to Western whole for theSioux to be whole regularly by any Sioux group Howard p The Sun Dance is still practiced among some tribes althoughmore for its issue today for theconcept of identity even though both music and dance and Sun Dance or part of dances may be is certainly debatable a context that helps themmaintain an identity that is distinct were interchangeable although pan-Indianism does of course encourage American Indians to learnmore of their individual traditions and Ghost Danceis known by name Wovoka also in the West p About Wovoka suffered a Ghost Dance It was supposed to peoples soon regarded him as their messiah By they December Thereafter Wovoka's influencediminished and the Ghost Dance in love to the wild emotions of the Ghost Dance on It has however retained at J DeMaillie and D R Parks Eds J and Parks D H Lincoln NE University of Nebraska Eastman M H rep Dahcotah West The Sioux at Pine Sioux Life and customs of a warrior society Norman F Life of Sitting Bull Chicago Edgewood Publishing present New York HarperCollins Levine V Lincoln University of Nebraska Olden S E The people of the Sioux New York Hastings House Schell R M Red man's America A history of Indians in Sitting Bull New York Ballantine before would have found the entire and arguably other native peoples were nearly always integrated into either ceremonial orcelebrative activities of rest of his or her their sense of cultural identity well However the Sioux did not go them successfully resist culturalgenocide and their hundred years ago the music the post-colonial world This paper examines both what cultural and even political context that includeddance and ritual and religious meaning which in turn relating it to other musical traditions of theregions types of musical performance or ratherintegrated musical-dance-ritual performance of coming of European settlers to the New World as such they remain knowntoday although members Native American tribes of the Siouan language Teton The main peoplesencountered by European explorers of present-day Sans Arc Blackfoot Sioux Hunkpapa mainly along the Missouri River By contrast Missouri River to hunt animals woodlandpeoples in the Mille Lacs region of present-day the Ojibwa people contact forced in thenecessary economic and cultural shifts with relative ease to They transformed themselvesinto what Utley calls true horse-and-buffalo Indians to help the Sioux maintain their however the eastern groups madetreaties territory east of the Mississippi The first clash was in nearFort Laramie Wyoming when granting the Black Hills in perpetuity tothe Sioux The on June by the Sioux the end of Sioux resistance until modern times Hyde pp after the Middle Ages and soits significance cannot not ceased to be active in their have been particularly involved in theAmerican Indian Movement the town of Wounded Knee for days people Schell p This focuses on the consequences of Sioux society To characterize the Sioux as the people as relevant and central to anycultural definition did notoriginate in the Plains many of because aspects of their newphysical environment were unsuited to traditional Marquis p Punishments among the Sioux for moral and songs could also be severe since songs in Sioux rituals and music although taken by as metaphors for dramatic emotional moments inmusic tend to the firstpeoples of most of North also sometimes women and older members of a group important asSioux culture and the Sioux themselves ceremony of the Ghost Dance which will be discussed anomalous Much of the musical traditionsof the Sioux As a person passed through the and these rituals almost always included instrumentalmusic singing and have Christians This is not to say that they have apleasant existence carrying on everyday Various rituals including specified forms ortypes of music are used symbolic dances processions and feasts Sandoz p The Sun dance is a summerassembly at which ithave especially important implications for Sioux culture which wasan essential part of traditional Sioux religious ceremonies although tosome in the Sioux culture are more known to us from religious movements among Native Americans with ceremonies that have at their core highlyemotional who foretold the imminentend of the Ghost Dance depleted animal populations and deceased the Pine Ridge Reservation in SouthDakota in Lazarus specific role that music played to theextent that it Music General Characteristics of American that pre-contact music was substantially different but there is in someways as the rest of the cultures of the remains of musical instruments than it does The songs accompanied by drumming forming the basis of Sioux of the balance of importance of vocal andinstrumental elements do also produce love songsplayed by the West and when the Siouxlisten maysound very much the same from a tense vocal production is characteristic east of the RockyMountains the listener accustomed to Western vocal traditions a substantially greatervariety of instrumental forms exists and music and the instrumental elements as well the utilization of the same instruments during battle Messrick The musical traditions of the Sioux are usually which are simply large socialgatherings often intertribal featuring of much Sioux music as powwow has heard at least someof this style of singing Sioux music because of their original wellas forms that are antiphonal and responsorial Traditional dances Hassrick pp However as shall be discussed Rather the two exist simultaneously and them the more complexities are revealed easy for Western observers to slight dance traditions have been lost or come Two Musical Instruments Before beginning a discussion of the all of these instruments would have been used in contact withEuropeans the Indians both all cultures change their culturalpractices but do mean is the period of contact Indian Music The Drums The most important instrument drums to Indianmusic a range of the This is true for both aesthetic reasons since Indianmusic would have influencedthe aesthetic ones of the mostpenetrating possible sounds themselves and carries a faint etymologically the word used to meanstriking three forms single-headed and double-headed hand drums large of the Sioux like those of allAmerican Indian tribes ahard wood like oak one assumes for drums in terms of their the same woods used to make ships which drums by filling the interior of ritual without being readjusted despite aspect of the ritual itself and as and was adorned with musical rasps probablyborrowed from one of the Indian groups that had always made by wrapping the end head and therefore may haveproduced a sound Siouan tribes nearly as often as aredrums and are used instrument primarily for its ability to several disadvantages over drums they certainlydo not have as theaffective side of resonance that a drum could have been produced quickly if for example adrum might make could not beheard by Western-style orchestras usea variety of instruments as well Bells ankles and the legs ofdancers As such way the bells wouldsound Grant p This melding of and clogging The Sioux language makes an clear to them as it is clear movies of a certain era has important to a number of Indian musicaltraditions including those of rarely used for dancesor for individual within a sacred context but accompanied by song and so may be seen as providing a type of yucancan whichis a combination of words meaning to sound of a rattlesnake's tail Powers p in a cave Thereare few analogues for such musical instruments recognized as something that was first made and perfectly clear that itis the movement of the musicians hands from the motions that one sees being the Sioux although never as the larger species with those whistles beingmade of eagle so that thateach whistle made the sound of the bird used to accompany dances but were insteademployed siyotanka is actually probably better translated as recorder or flageolet the whistle used by the prairie chicken not onlybecause whistles can in fat more common terminology for simplicity'ssake of the Sioux is takes the place of amelodic line that change of convention became one far as it is possible to determinefrom the a description of one such The dancer lies down and the medicine man makes an dancing he looks at the west facing east conducts him to the north facing word should be added about chordophones which while notunknown among things that squeak by means theseinstruments that might well have seemed important part of the music of North AmericanIndians was not essential to American at all beyond one'sown body rest of the world for as long as every occasion and for each and the historical reasons for this and other similar American verbal musical forms like scatsinging allow these vocalizationswere meaningless rather than words the song no doubt true in theory it is changes may be expected to occur inevitably The within a Western context areprotected by copyrights individuals societies orsometimes to individuals Clans and societies had special be owned They seemby definition to authorized using our name makes usvery Sioux ideas about theimportance of songs even those of us who live in ahumanistic and secular if they are not followed to a number of sanctions were to be started again one can imagine the dancers being one did not have the right could hunted on another person'sland or performances existed were morecommunally owned Elias p and also potentially from the dancingthat is occurring simultaneously not necessarily of other instruments which usually differed in a different rhythm had to do for the drum Grant p All the everyday movement of people preparing food up with it which is after all ordinary Singing was not only provided the percussive elements that the drum suppliedduring dances in any sort ofagricultural work and the Sioux women would the use of song Indigenous Distinctions Among many song texts came to one has beencareless with previous divine largesse represented in the number of semantic distinctionsthat the Sioux relative unimportance of singing within contemporaryAmerican culture which make public in song Yabu to Yaiyowaza the trail the voice like an Yazilya to drawl while singing are Wicaho oegnakwe scale Olowan Powers pp Difficulties in Knowing Such etymological the music sounded within a traditionalcontext One sounded before they culture was fundamentally important aspect of Siouxculture but much of this early encounters Some of the accounts that have survived details about the structureand overall effects it One description published in of Sioux music no records of their own rituals and one celebrating the power of thunder or possibly both countenance horrible beyond expression The devoted offer him acceptable service but how degraded in that service It is obviously difficult to derive objective information notes about the recordings andtranscriptions made by method for coordinatingvoice and drum present in Sioux music that in reconciling the rhythms of the drums and otherinstruments should not make when hearingnon-Western music These assumptions are small structure Pantaleoni p All of these are not necessarilytrue of to distinguish for example whether a drumbeat research such as that of Densmore deteriorating physicalconditions and the recordings Indian music has been recorded since just the twentieth century numerous recording technologies were developed and to flourishand began to transform makes it in some ways easier to study accompanied by music and singing that isbetter that person's name and memory singing was unaccompanied by entire nightand different songs were performed by the musicians dances performed by women It would be almost every occasion for war for was accompanied with singing and chanting which must certainly as well asinstrumental music Some of often reflected in and therefore often reflected thecomplexity of and overall tone of a dance and in was a celebration of both thanksgivingand fertility and is women step in a single-file circular coursearound a the dancers or might be included in these would be replaced after contactwith Europeans always destroyed after each ritual to the music Terrell p aspects of the ritual Dance andmusic Sioux music in the way that one re-emphasizing Indian and especially Plains Indian identity as well as become indistinguishable from each other and from ritualand ceremony and over the Plains in the thcentury each these were militaristic in their rhetoric Others like forceful ejection of whit settlers This dance which was at leastthrough the middle of the th its later performances and the Ghost have been essential in establishing and that she or he possesses the niya or the aspectof of any individual to receive sacred power Amiotte of creating this wholeness Amiotte p long ceremonial involved sacred objectsand sometimes included voluntary self-laceration or not something that was an are still used to help cement pan-Indian powwows that are commonly held in Indianidentity Hoop dances for example hoops in dream society functions and most substantial pan-Indian elements as if all genetic and cultural blends of several groups However such Dance Unlike other Sioux dances created this dance of despair and hope teach his fellow Native Americans a certain to make it possible for them to live in the Sioux chief Sitting Bull long way from the drumming of the Bean about these people has changed the heart of Siouxculture ReferencesAmiotte Notes and queries Journal of American Folk-lore Browner T Bulletin Washington DC Government Printing Office Dakota of the Canadian Northwest Lessons people Notes Grant B Concise encyclopedia of the American The Canadian Sioux Lincoln University of Nebraska Hyde G A E Black Hills white justice The Sioux Nation versus a White Crow Indian Lincoln University of Nebraska Press nature of Supernatural discourse in Lakota Norman University of Sioux Trail New York McGraw Theisz R D Haven Yale University Utley R The lance and Introduction Traditional Sioux of the relatively passive observers to amusical performance extremely odd For them everyday life It was not to imagine Even for a professional musician for the native peoples of this continent the music was integralto so many other in the form of the SunDance and European settlers Utley p Although it now serves in individual what itmeans to be a Sioux and that culture has evolvedinto with a focus on but this seems especially true for Native American the Siouxand on the role of music in American of this paper examines the Sun Dance and the other native groups the Sioux lost much by early explorers and traders allies Utley p The Sioux were not a single cultural into major divisions the sedentary and federation including Yankton Yanktonai and the Lakota Sioux whom are also known together as theSantee Arikaras were farmers who Lakota gathered food fished and farmed but twice of European contact when they enterthe historical written record were surrounded by large rival forcedthe Sioux to move to heartland of the northern Great survive theterrible dislocations that they would face during the had fought on the side of the British much ofpresent-day Minnesota the Dakotas Wisconsin Iowa Missouri and pattern of assault and counterassault in Nebraskaand imprisoned their chief Red Cloud's War named in the s In the ensuingconflict General George S troops of about to between the first settlers of North America andEuropean settlers World While the Sioux are no longer rights movement seeking restoration of their land base and the AIM in concert with a group of Oglala is for Sitting Bull and Wounded Knee that the cultural and rituallife Utley pp and happened at Anzio Both Copland's familygroup that traveled together in search that became their neighbors obviously a primary source belligerentpeople the Sioux tended toward what might well be considered scarring and an infraction of huntingregulations led to destruction also prevalent in other situations Mournersinflicted slashes on in fact less dramaticthan much of Western music because the religious beliefs were similar to those ofmany other Wakan Tanka or the Great Mystery perhapsmore usually potent messages possible about living people The most dramatic and cultural survival and religious practices But theGhost ix-xii Like other Native American groups of guardian spirit atpuberty setting off at death certaintaboos Native Americans generally have tended to assume that thesouls of the also believedthat the souls of unhappy are common among NativeAmericans Individuals regularly give thanks to importance is a fairly is an typical Almighty Lazarus pp The Sun Dance and the of the Sioux without discussingthe ways in which culture waswaning before it could be accurately recorded The GhostDance Lazarus p The Ghost Dance is as crisis cults which are religions or sectarian perhaps best known from its performances by the Sioux although by Christian imagery Wovoka promised Americaperformed the ceremony even after United States Army troops massacredSioux below were acombination of dance music religious imagery acts different rituals arediscussed in later sections after a brief overview expression with instrumental music servingprimarily as that it is atleast in some much more important than it is now one would expect written record of the West in some sense only an Exceptions do occur notably the North Americanlove cases are meant to sing with their own voices vibration Hessrick pp To those America tendto use a softer singing including the use of falsettos that hand or worn on the body as northernpart of the hemisphere As has been noted music in the use of element of a sacred ritual Native American styles of North America and are the style andwhile men's voices are preferred a high of terrace-shaped-beginning high and descending as However it is also important to note that havenarrower melodic ranges and Eastern singing social round dancesand may reflect the polyphonal and and it is not entirely accurate to other Sioux music and dance significantly different from the musical traditions sought toappreciate the complexity and artistry of native music The rich emotive and artistic complexities of the first musicever be useful toprovide a more detailed description of the instruments changed over the years All native materials and new instruments would not have It should beremembered throughout the following discussion of their culture would have skin or hidecovering one or both beaten drum Powers p The element But it is also probably truefor practical reasons as without microphones hasto be able to be heard and the although it should be noted that this is a was widespread even at the drum was simply the hand have used before they were displaced simple square boards orplanks that ruin the maker's effort Softerwoods damp aswater drums are Powers p tightening the rawhide head beforea of thedrum Grant p Drums were usually tuned a failure on the part drums such as thatused in the Grass Dance The the Ogala Sioux used such some Sioux to use withinritual or traditional contexts sometimes especially with water drums This stick wasprobably sticks are used in traditional Indian music including attempt to attract theattention of certain gods or to cymbals or the percussion line in any successful Westerners appreciate about the playing of adrum example but not through anotched stick However notched sticks do an advantage in that they could be used by notched sticks were used simply to provide a measureof the costume of the dancers attached tostrips of Indian forms for the tempo aspect ofcertain other kinds of classifies bells with drums rather than with the to a dancer Powers p A Hollywood's images of the Indian are not that and turtle shells and later from such andreligious festivals and by shamans or medicine men Rattles wereconsidered making them the instrument whose use was to vocal music but they for rattle comes from the words for gourd andskin movement of the handbut being related to the sound that also exists in nature assomething voiceof nature The Aolian harp is an one thisanalogy even more for while to have a volition outside of themusician's North American Indian music and from the wing bones of a variety been taken from andone has to suppose that theresulting call did in fact resemble the to signal to another hunting party that game had into music lessons and the otherinstruments with which we are now familiar out their cheeksand then blowing Powers p The on the whistle is never accompanied by singing by the whistle was probably originally important song texts although in practice this has notalways self-mutilation that the Siouxoften participated in as a way one ofthe most important rituals for the Sioux backs away from the tree until After a few minutes the medicine until he is able to tear the hook from stringedinstruments from Europeans both plucked wonderif such a name did not simple clarity of the human voice Powers p contact with Europeans an essential part of Indian forms for along with such they even came to the or monotonous work to be gottenthrough had no words and so differfundamentally from Western produced by Lewis Carroll All that yippee-ya-yaying in Indians did not Grant p the song a new one couldbe at leastslightly for even well-trained memories can fail and when dramatically from European songs in amusement and edification However this is not truefor seems at first highly authoritarian to theWesterner who is analogous to the way Westerners an unauthorized use of a personalname Given this context that at least some songs had songwithout being properly trained to do so eachsong could make mistakes and these mistakes singer often hadto be paid for with a fine and these fines were relatively light sanctions for were especially severe in the area of musicalaccompaniment to the extent that an idea is the fact that bothrhythm and meter of the song can be among song instrumentation and dance During ceremonies dancers was supposed to govern the movements of the legs body rhythm within a rhythm in of the village whichwould have been during a ceremony The result would have been a a while at least removes especially when spinning orgrinding and in these forms of singing as they worked shouldnot be surprising and all such work regardless often appearing to a singer during with such zealousness forone can hardly expect to repetition as is true of manytraditional songs thinking a fact that linguisticanthropologists would use to demonstrate the thefollowing bearing in mind that this is like the onomatopoeic English word and comes to begin or lead a song Yaptan to change evaluate singing Sioux contains a number of words to whining Houkiye to receive a song in a vision the Sioux understood vocal music is that in some ways it is performed by scores and possibly even hundreds ofpeople and oflarge sings since these were vehemently of the singing Terrell p oftraditional Sioux music show not onlya lack of appreciation for Sioux music sounded like at the point of contact with European their God-demanded duty to expunge Eastman writes about a the contortions of the medicine man of human beings believing in the bones of animals the senseless rock the very the original recorder is free of overt anddenigrating ethnocentric the music and are doing their best notational forms Although it should be noted thatBoas is listeners including scholars make fiveassumptions in hearing Western music that and other interpretive effects are purely decorative rhythmic coordination audiences had the ability to make very of a second after it Such fine oftraditional music does exist although many of these recordings oftraditional Siouxreligion philosophy and poetics are also had begun to record the music of the native various forms of cassette recording technologies thatthe themselves to a way for the or distortions into the original was performed exactly a year after aperson's a rattler since this was not a dancebut a and included songs performed on a water drum anda Four A Larger Cultural Context The Relationship harvest or togive thanks for one to singing werenot distinguished in the same ways in avillage who wished to participate the chance to do each other but in fact there is substantialvariation in both from music can be seen in the sacred elements of the dance In circle outside both themale dancers and the male singers skin andfilled with enough water to give it a of basswood about inches in length andone-quarter thick these time These garter bells were made of deer hooves strungon leather become seamlessly attached so that we cannot in any a point noted at the as Political Protest Dances and was prima facie a form and dance becomeintegrated with political protest as well A sense of the wholeness of significantto the Santee Dakota along with the Potawatomi and wasaccompanied by mutual gift-giving to show the good will amalgams of music dance ritual including the music as well as Sun Dance Johnson p The Sun Dance helps define ideas of a ghost the nagila or spirit of animation and music and dance when combined in certain was in fact held as a celebration in veneration spectacular aspects than for its religious significance forit should is something that is important what it means to be an Indian and especially the SunDance are a way of Theymay have originated with the Pueblo Indians from and yet admirable to outsidesociety also recognize the terrible injustices done to allnative peoples as to help them maintain their ownmusic along with other cultural called Jack Wilson circa aNative American prophet of feveraccompanied by delirium he claimed to have enable the NativeAmericans to recover their original land to performed the ghost dance nightly and it played was laid aside as a possible means of andthen to the pan-Indian powwows of the its core the beating of thedrums the singing Sioux Indian religion Tradition and innovation pp Norman University eds Sioux Indian religion Norman University of Oklahoma Densmore F or Life and legends of the Sioux Chicago Afton Historical Ridge and Wounded Knee The Illustrated American Reprinted Ramona CA OK University of Oklahoma Howard J H The pan LaPointe J Legends of the L Book review Women in Tipi Sapa Milwaukee Morehouse Publishing Pantaleoni H One of Densmore's H S History of South Dakota Lincoln University the United States Chicago University of Chicago Utley Books idea of putting on their best clothes and throughout the world beforethe onset of industrialization music was something personal and communal life Hassrick p Such a degree daily activitiesand is distinctly recognizable as an activity that can with the coming of theEuropeans quietly into the good night of colonization and they used music has remained a part of their identity of the Sioux remains a bedrock of theirculture and the Sioux culture or rather cultures was It is probably true that nomusical tradition can included politicalimplications for the colonized people After providing some where the Sioux lived as the Sioux Indians A Brief including their own name for themselves The of the group have begun to add back their family and ofthe Plains culture South Dakota were theArikara and most andthe Minneconjou and the Dakotas composed of the other Sioux peoples wereseminomadic At their settlements near in the area ofpresent-day South Dakota Minnesota They lived onsmall game at leastsome measure by the encroachment of this newenvironment becoming adept buffalo hunters and the tribes grew p Thissame level of cultural sense of self in aworld of friendship with the United States and in another River tothe United States additional territory was U S soldiers were killed In retaliation treaty however was not honored by the United chief Sitting Bull and hiswarriors After It can also be seen as the be overestimated either to the Sioux who were mostdirectly and own defense and havelong been active in AIM a civil rights group that has activelyprotested anddemanded a United States Senate investigation of colonization however and doeslittle to provide a window whowere slaughtered at and retook Wounded Brief Ethnography of the Allied Peoples The basic their costumes are consonant with otherPlains Indians practices Woodland culturalpatterns Even before contact legal violations forexample were often very wereheld in high esteem as sacred or itselfthe music would not necessarily sound extreme Sioux be missing from traditional American Indian America The Sioux believed in cultivatedreligious visions as these were seen as direct came increasingly under attack andas individuals sought to find indetail below as one way in which music were entwined with such dances stages of thelife cycle obtaining dancing as well as other ritual elements such Native Americans and theSioux specifically among them have believed activities in much the same waythat they lived on to ensure the safe passage of dead along their way Dance of the Plains peoples which the a thousand or more people would meet to arediscussed in the final section of this extent we must only guess thenewer aspects of their traditional have at timestaken on the character of rituals The Ghost Dance was performed current world order Casting himself in relatives would be restored Forseveral years many indigenous peoples pp Both the Sun Dance and theGhost Dance which can be isolated from these other elements as Indian Music Among the persisting native musical styles of the not sufficientarchaeological ethnographic or historical evidence to state definitivelythat in which the music was integrated changed However human voice is now and has been music Hassrick p Indeed to distinguish singing from music to the music of the Sioux or most of men on flutes for women although it to them they hear the lilting speech region to region but in fact there aresubstantial regional Sioux singing is more generally characterized Hessrick pp Throughout the Americas the principal instruments have been South American indigenes are farmore likely as the instrumentsthemselves have often had religious significance This is pp but it should be noted classified with thoseof the tribes of the Native American dancing and notlinked to specific rituals it is performed withina contemporary regardless of the tribal affiliation of thesingers This typically homeland Eastern Woodland music resembles of theSioux include men's solos below therelationship between dance and aresymbiants of each other with Because the musicaltraditions of the Sioux the artistryof American Indian musicians tous in diluted and hybridized forms composition of Sioux music or adeeper explication everymusical composition and also bearing in mind began to use new materials in constructingtheir that Sioux music must have begun to sound differentalmost with Europeansettlers onward to the present and from to traditional Indian music is the drum almost instruments was used providing a variety of tonesand voices and is so fundamentally rhythmical it is hard to imagine for music played in the open in the presence ofhundreds Powers p The drum often called a tom-tom derogatoryhint to it was beaten with either the hands a drum means to strike with the hand apa dance drums played byseveral musicians simultaneously and the except for some Pacific coastal peoples are roundand hollow those the simple reason that it sound but are morelikely to is in fact what youdo see The thedrum with differing amounts of water thelength of many rituals and the a way of markingtime within the ritual Powers p The of bone and tinplate resonators which lived on the Plainsand so would of astick with buckskin Grant less like that of a human hand striking a for the same basic purpose of establishing rhythm aswell make loud sound seemsquaint or overly the ability to be heard as well and they lack possesses One can imagine thegods speaking through did break just before a everyone and so disrupt an were used in many traditional Plains dances not they represent one of the ways in which music movement and music is ofcourse not unique to semantic distinction for musicalinstruments as objects made by humans to anyone watchingtap-dancing that such a seenIndians performing dances accompanying themselves with the the Sioux Rattles are made of whatevermaterials reasons like courting but were instead used almostexclusively by were not themselves sacred Grant p Rattles were also to beanalogous in some ways to drums and other forms vocalization of theirown that Westerners may not shake with the hand and simply toshake or yuhlahla which The implication of this etymology is that the in the West ones that areclearly created by then allowed to singby itself Anyone who has seen and body that is producing the musicof the rattle performed and that shouldbe driving the rattle's most importantof instruments The Sioux like other indigenous peoples bone being the most highly prized The Sioux believed thateach that it had been taken from and to play love songs and to rather than as whistle although the former wordcalls Sioux is a fipple-flute and so is more sound like prairie chickens but because bothhumans and that in many ways interchangeable with the could have been sung as in love that was playedinstrumentally In theory every song played on remaining songs and texts Powers p Whistles were also ritual for awarrior wishing to fortify himself This is incision in the dancer's chest and sun and blows on a turkey wing bone whistle to south and later to the other points of the native peoples of North America are not among theoriginal of the hands aword related to the name for overly elaborate to those raised onthe music and in this the Sioux are typical Singing Indianmusic and ritual for thousands of years before contact It is what we begin with as human beings there has been asunrise to differentkind of ceremony and event in an would be interesting toinvestigate they resemble the songs sung by for a certain amount and had an integrity that wassupposed hard toimagine that in an oral culture songs of the Sioux also differ and are free to sing any song officers to seethat the songs were sung properly and only be as free as the air Expect for the uneasy and may in some cases be illegal For and their ownership It is world can appreciate at least intellectually howpotentially dangerous it could theletter Of course even those created to prevent such amisfortune especiallydispleased with having to begin be substantial which is inkeeping with the fact that sang another's song Grant p It should be Another way in which Sioux songs are The complexity of such an from the rhythm of the with the feelings At times there were as many this aural complexity was laid over a childrenplaying and such essential activities as the point of a good ritual the province of men nor of rituals lovemakingand war Sioux women also had a wide selection have been those mostresponsible for agrarian work for while Song Types Songs were both passed people in dreams and therefore were consideredto be Songs lyrics were complex both in terms of content and made in describing songs Dozens of words can is semantically poverty-stricken in this area Among the growl as one sings Yahogita to become echo Yasna to blunder in song Yastan to complete Yahla to make the voice rattle powers pp In addition kin ho melody Wicaho hukuciyela distinctions as those listed above are invaluableclues in of the great difficulties in writing about the so violently damaged and theymade so many adaptations is now irredeemably lost because there are relatively free fromEuropean bias about both of such music But far more frequent are shouldmake it clear how difficult theEuropeans show in these rituals frightening Then the music commenced and the horrid sounds increased attention of the savages given to every part of the How fallen from its high estate was the soul that about Siouxmusic and rituals when Frances Densmore viz Densmore Westernbiases sneak earlier researchers missed intheir attempts to transliterate either recordings or and those of the voice in American Indian pauses are interpretiveand incidental slightly Sioux music he argues especially the first one He falls one sixth of a suggestsit to be Pantaleoni p Fortunately for scholars a that early scholars made of song texts while invaluable in years after ThomasEdison's invention of the phonograph in By the employed in therecording of Plains Indian music It was itself from a tool of scholars themusic of the first peoples such a popularization documented than most in the ethnographic dancing The singers in this case wereaccompanied by Terrell p The Four Nights Ceremony helpfulindeed if more such examples of well-documented hunting to bring rain or to bring sun beconsidered part of the music these dances were more complex than others although a number the music itself Grant p Non-Indian observers may find whether or not the dancers alsocontributed vocalizations to one of the few dances to include a group of singers with men representing beans and forming the innermost circle Thesemusicians played a water drum by buckshot The musicians and Finally music wasproduced by garter bells sometimes also Here dance dancers music and musicians instruments and life are in many ways the can discuss John Cage although arguably Cage too requires aform of political protest since an insistence upon the whole concept of traditional Sioux life after one an attempt to use music and dance to the Dream Dance that became popular performed around a large sacred drum was one offellowship with century and is still performed in somewhatmodified Dance These have beenreferred to before but merit a further re-establishing a sense of identityfor the an individual that ties identity p All of these elements must be kept The Sun Dance is no longer performed torture Stronglyopposed by missionaries it issueonly in the th century It continues to be an and maintain a sense of Indian-ness the s and which may contain performance of the are often performed at powwows although how traditional such PlainsIndians including the Sioux now perform them in ofthe native peoples of the continent pan-Indian events actually seem to the individual who created the The Illustrated American Ghost Dancers dance ritual which cameto be known as the eternal peace andprosperity The Plains on December and in themassacre at Wounded Knee on Dance and thewhistles of young men during the hundreds of years that thispaper touches A The Lakota Sun Dance Historical and contemporary perspectives In American Warriors Ethnomusicology DeMaille R Eastman C Wigwam evenings Sioux folk tales retold for survival Manitoba University of Manitoba Ghost dancers in the Indian New York Crown Hassrick R The Sioux chronicle Norman OK University of Oklahoma Johnson W the United States to the Nurge E The modern Sioux Social systems and reservation culture Oklahoma Sandoz M These were Teton Sioux Music and Culture American Indian Quarterly Underhill the shield The life and times of last century or the centuries as for other native peoples ofthe Americas something apart Music and dancing example music issomething that stands apart from the Sioux lostmuch of what marked cultural activities they lost much of it as the Ghost Dance to help some ways a different purpose than it didthree beyond this what it means to be an AmericanIndian in the music of this people set within a broader artisticand music whichwas learned and performed and understood within a context Indian cultures this paper focuses onthe music of the Sioux Ghost Danceas the two most important single of what had defined themas a people with the as Nadouessioux wasshortened to Sioux and passed into English and group but rather an importantconfederacy of agricultural Santee theNakota and the warrior and buffalo-hunter Europeans called the Teton composedof the Oglala Brul Two Kettle lived in villages of earthen lodges a yearthey traveled west beyond the the Sioux comprised small bands of tribes Conflict with their enemy the buffalo ranges of the Great Plains They made Plains where theydominated this region for the next century th and thcenturies and continues during the AmericanRevolution and the War of In Wyoming In the Sioux sold all their developed assettlers pushed forward onto Sioux lands after aSioux chief ended in a treaty Armstrong Custer and troops were killed atLittle Bighorn Sioux men women and children at Wounded Kneein December marked who came to this hemisphere in armed conflict with the UnitedStates they have institution of a modernizedform of traditional life They Sioux who were angered byreservation abuses seized Sioux arechiefly known today that is as a militaristic in many ways presents a false view of thetrue nature airs and the complexdrumming of Sioux dances are at least of game Although the Sioux of culturalchange is borrowing from adjacent cultures or extremebehavior by many modern Americans of European descent of tepee and property Violations for therules concerning ownership of themselves during burial ceremonies Something of thisintensity is reflected kind of melodic shifts thatWesterners tend to hear Plains Indians and indeed similar in general to translated as Great Spirit Young Sioux men especially although avirtuous and praiseworthy life Such visions became especially wide-ranging example of this phenomenonwas the frenzied Dance should not be seen as North America the Sioux engagedin a great variety of rituals for the journey to the afterlife ritualsmarked the passages shown less interest in an afterlifethan dead go to another part of the universe where or evil persons might stay around their formerhomes causing misfortunes their gods and communitiesgathered and gather for suchannual dance although larger in size than most The music and dance that compose music and religion are intertwined Certainly music ways in which religionand music are mixed an example of thefact that new movements that respond tosignificant cultural threats it wasbegun in by a Paiute prophet named Wovoka that ifNative Americans would conduct a ceremony known as the ghost dancers at Wounded Knee on of cultural identity singing and ritualized texts The of the qualities ofAmerican Indian rhythmic accompaniment There is no reason to think ways different since it must have changed at least the archaeological record to show a greater density andvariety the primary element of Siouxmusic with accompaniment would be togive a false impression songs played by men on flutes Th Sioux Theseflutes are more animated than are those of unfamiliar with the American Indian music the singing voice than those of North America for example whereas may sound reedy and thin to well as flutes andwhistles although in Mesoamerica and the Andes above throughout the Americas both the vocal lineof flutes and whistles in the SunDance and in wasconnected to religious ideas and beliefs source of themusical styles heard at present-day powwows range and falsetto are valued Thesinging at powwows and thus thesong progresses Anyone who has been at a there are elements ofEastern Woodland style in makes use of polyphony as responsorial nature of the music say that the dance simply reflectsthe music or the reverse are complex and the more scholars come to knowabout of theWest it has been all too fact that somuch of the native musical and to be played in the New World Chapter themselves bearingin mind that not instruments wereoriginally made from organic materials but with increasing made Siouxmusic inauthentic in any way for that the period of Indianmusic about which most is known begun to change andbe changed The Heart of ends Because of the importance of drumbeat in Indian music provides both its heartand its backbone well and these of course base of a deep drum is one term applied to it by Europeansettlers rather than by Indians time of contact and remainswidespread today the fact that Powers p Indian drums were traditionally fashioned in one of and which theywould have brought with them Drums are less resonant but play beautifully and generally made of such as cedar make fine Thus you would expect to see waterdrums made of fire or in the case of water before a ritual andthen played throughout the of the musicians or theinstrument but as an Grass Dance Drum was about the size of a bassdrum a drum which the Northern Sioux Howard p Drumsticks when they were used were not wrapped to produce a softer butnot limited to the music of the drive away certain types of evils If thisuse of an rock music Notched sticks have They also lack the musical authority which can be seen possess some virtues They are relativelysimple to make and so lessskilled musicians so that any mistake that they variety in music in much the same way that leather or basketry and worn on the and style of the dance determined the music such as tap dancing singing human voice However it is no doubt Tool of the Sacred Rattles Anyone who has watched Western distorted for rattles are indeed deeply borrowed materials asbuckshot However unlike drums or whistles rattles were to be sacred unlike other musical instruments which could beused most marked bygender distinction Levine p Rattles were often must also beseen as speaking as well wagmuha but the word for rattling can be either of elements reverberating inside acontainer such as the like an echo or the sound of dry leaves rustling of the few true analogues for thistoo is on the one hand it is own and often the sound of the rattle seems strikinglydisconnected wereused by various branches of of birds includingeagles hawks geese and other that musicians varied their playing styles bird that the whistle was supposedto emulate Whistles were rarely been sighted Grant p The Sioux word latterword is relatively obscure But Powers p TheSioux word actually translates as great whistle to stay with the because todo so would seem superfluous The whistle often spoken but throughtime and the been the case at least in so to make themselves both physically andspiritually stronger Here is as well as for other PlainsIndians the rope is taut and dances facing the sun While man who has conducted him to the his flesh and free himself Terrell p Chordophones A brief and bowed ones calling them by anonomatopoeic word meaning imply a certain amount of disdain for Chapter Three The Songs of the People Vocalizations are an culture but it is hard to imagine that singing percussive typesof music as clapping and stomping it requires nothing New World just aspeople have sung in the Different songs exist for nearly definitions of what properly constitutes a song although the cowboys' version However while thecowboys' songs Once a song was set with vocalizations even if made up However while this was the person whoknows a song best dies the concept of whocan sing them Although songs written the traditional Sioux fort Sioux songs belong to clans or unused to the idea that melodies can feel about personalnames The idea of someone we have not it is easier to understand close to what we wouldconsider to be magical powers and We all know that spells can haveterrible and unexpected consequences too could bring misfortune tothe group and so a mistake in a song could cause a dance orceremony the singing of asong to which possession ofvarious sorts whether one committed adultery of musical accompaniment asdistinct from other aspects of ritual or differs or can differ from the instrumentalmusic being played simultaneously followed the beat of the drum although and arms while the song the singing and a different rhythm decorated for any major ceremony in addition to thedancing and nearlyoverwhelming aesthetic experience even to those who had grown one from everything that is the clack or spindle or the scrapeof grinding stones to anyone who has ever been engaged of culture or era is made alittle quicker through a dream It is the fact thatso be favored again by the gods if Olden p and the complexity of possiblesinging types is clearly importance of singing to theSioux and the not a comprehensive list Yatun to sing out Yaotanin to from the Sioux term for buzzing bees the tune of a song describe the elements of songsthemselves Among these or to learn a song from another person aswell as giving us some hints at how impossible to know howtheir songs so were a widespread and and sometimes even violentlydiscouraged during and some even give some but a violent distaste and evenhatred for settlerssince the Sioux were writing Sioux dance that was either a medicine danceor as he went round and round made his a Great Spirit and anxious to earth that we stood upon Eastman p biases the results may still be substantiallycompromised as Pantaleoni to transcribe it literally Pantaleoni found a precise systematic non-Western already aware of the problems that Western-trainedresearchers have while fully appropriate to thetraditions of European-based music listeners rests upon rhythmic coincidence and stressmarks finedistinctions in terms of rhythm being able distinctions would make Sioux musiceven more complex than older songs are themselves compromised by in some ways sadly incompletewithout the accompanying music peoples ofthe Great Plains including the Sioux and during American Indian and Plains Indian recording industry began general population to enjoyAmerican Indian music While this forms ofthe music Theisz p One of the Sioux ceremonies death as a way of perpetuating formal and rather solemn ritual The ceremony lasted an horn rattle as well as of Dance to Music Traditional Indians had a dance for mark the changing of the seasons Each of thesedances as they are in the West so The complexity ofthe dance was movement and composition with substantial ranges intempo adescription of the Bean Dance which the dance both men and Musicians might form a fourth circleoutside liquid ringing tone along with ahorn rattle that contained pebbles beaters were used to strike measures for thedancers and were and added another melodic and rhythmic line wayknow the dancer or the musician from other beginning of this paper It is simply notpossible to discuss the music association with them became ways of of political protest Justas music and dance number of waves of dance revivals passed the universe that American Indians hadonce inhabited Some of the Ojibwa and theMenomimi had no connection with war or of theparticipants This dance was performed in its original form and political protest were theSun Dance in other elements of a dance all four aspects of the soul that thetraditional Sioux knows and the sicun or ability rituals arethe most effective means of thesun Held in summer the eight-day be noted that Indian identity is to all humans and danceand music the latter have changed dramatically over time For example the using dance and music to create and affirm an but Indians of the NorthernPlains carried similar Nurge p Such events tend to have well as recognizing the fact that many contemporaryIndians are the practices Howard p The Ghost the Paiute born in what is now Mineral County Nevada had a vision of God instructinghim to reunite them with theirancestors and a role in the arrestand slaying of remedyfor the Sioux Wallace pp Conclusion It is a s Sioux music like everythingelse of sacred and mundane texts and of Oklahoma Boas F Teton Sioux music Teton Sioux music Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Society Press Elias P D The Acoma Books Gooding E D Songs of the Indian culture of Oklahoma Scientific Monthly pp Howard J H Lakota San Francisco Indian Historian Press Lazarus North American Indian music Ethnomusicology Marquis T B Memoirs of Dakota rhythms reconsidered Ethnomusicology Powers W K Sacred language The of Nebraska Terrell J U R The last days of the Sioux nation New goingto a concert hall to listen as that was integratedinto the fabric of ritual and of integration is hard for citizens of the almost stcentury be isolated fromother activities Like so many of to what is now the United States and because their music and dancing in particular well pastthe period of most severe sanctions by an active means of establishing for each like before European contact as well as what informatively be discussed in the absence of such acontext cultural and historical background on well as discussing its unique attributes The final section History of the Sioux Like Ojibwa word for the group rendered into French originalname of Lakota or Dakota which meant area The seven allied tribes of the confederacy areclassified of them were in the Sioux the Sisseton Wahpeton Mdewakanton and the Wakpekute The last two Mille Lacs in east centralMinnesota the Utley p In the th century the time deer and wild rice and the Europeans onto Ojibwa land andprospered By the Sioux comprised some people firmlyestablished in the adaptability no doubt helped them in which indigenous peoples have very little foothold The Sioux treatyconfirmed Sioux possession of an immense territory that included sold in Hyde pp At this time a in U S troops killed about Sioux at their encampment States goldprospectors and miners flooded the region that battle the Sioux separated The massacre by U final battle in afour-hundred-year struggle most immediately affected nor to any other inhabitant of theNew the modern Native American civil government treatment of Native Americans since the late s In into Native American livingconditions It into the richness of their Knee is like characterizingAmericans by what social unit of the Sioux was the tiyospe an extended and resulting either from borrowings from othertribes with Europeans made them into a harsh Infidelity in marriage was punished bydisfigurement through ritual as gifts from the gods Such extremeemotional responses were music in generalsounds slightly mournful to the Western listener but music DeMaillie p The Sioux's traditional one all-pervasiveomnipotent god that they called communication
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