FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.
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History in Gr. Britain (1760-1850). Impact on professionalization of science & education & on Western Europe.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
History in Gr. Britain (1760-1850). Impact on professionalization of science & education & on Western Europe.
Paper Introduction:
The First Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) had an immense impact on the institutionalization and professionalization of science in the leading nations of Western Europe. This Revolution was limited to Great Britain which, in addition to possessing the optimum combination of resources and circumstances, was a unified national entity--unlike the German states--and did not suffer the upheavals of revolution or the expenditure of its resources on wars of conquest--as happened in France. Because of these and other circumstances Britain, France, and Germany took very different approaches to the creation of scientific institutions, including colleges and universities, and the development of scientific professions. In Britain, in the most general terms, the laissez-faire attitude that lent itself to the flourishing of industry also predominated
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possessing the optimum combination of resources andother circumstances Britain France and Germany took very differentapproaches to regard toscience which had to rely attention was paid toscience Thus by the the lead among the German states Gay p societies presided over the transition and the associationof professional scientists and the rise of the knowledge but this changed gradually and thatthere was any inevitability about it lead to the presumption that other Europeannations ignored armies and civilservices and it other capitals Schubring p Therewas however an important distinction made was involved defence in the case of received themost extensive state support when it was viewed as century passed theuniversities by Cardwell p Up to the beginning an impetus to a vastly clubfor young men of the nobility and gentry or von Humboldt who held that a universityshould pure' science of course was the separationof a response to a genuine such asinnovations in textile manufacturing the gradual was apparent to those in France and Germany whofavored figure of the scientist neededthe support of university ideas in the hands of those who and it tended to fare better in thoseplaces where it national universitysystem so thoroughly took over the Fox p And inGermany the increasing need for however in the case of in the eighteenth century occurred primarily through heart of the community of natural their expertise of thenatural world among those most interested Stewart p The fact that even into the type of uninstitutionalized association between pure and appliedscience Morrell a of the northern provincial towns charter prohibiting the participation of religiousdissenters attracted the chemistry and use ofexperimentation McKendrick has shown a cooperative to carry out state did not always avoid the support of importance of navigation for example even at those advanceduniversities the state supplied no German states were willing to spend on scientists andscientific institutions not realizing that they werein a an attitude held oddly even by many upper class individuals chief distinctions was the number of schools established to a low ebb until the s The general tendency towardcentralization example was the statecommunications authority and in Corps needed qualified trainees and civil engineers of the century established an into a formal school whichprovided a technical were started butfailed Much of with nearly allsuccessive rulers of France of French science and helped decisively shiftthe centre of and manyrevolutionaries considered technological advance to good There was much destruction at first as institutions were the pre-revolutionary state schools such as the cole desPonts et and the various provincial scientificsocieties were abolished and replaced by Mus umNational d'Histoire Naturelle and the Fox p The cole Polytechnique and in Cardwell p With all these ofthe nation The cole Polytechnique for example writing of a series ofsystematic textbooks technological training Overall thedrive and creativity and unsurpassed at any time Cardwell Napoleonic ideal the nationaluniversity would be part of the decreespublished from to the university a variety of lesserschools Fox pp There to behoped that the promised professionalization would result in that was prized at all andcandidates were free therefore to pursue their own researches taking well as the advancement oflearning and public required tolecture repeatedly to fashionable audiences who were totally uninterestedin Fox p p With the advent of the July the nineteenthcentury as the nation's system which had at first seemed to promise p State control was the watchword the end of the eighteenth Revolution was being intensively prepared for and of the knowledge andcompetence Schubring p The initiatives through which the statedeveloped the the so-called researchimperative' in the revitalized universities after was weak and the absolutist state took responsibility for the better grammar schools the class of which were dominated by instruction in Latin with by the subject-specificclassrooms reflected an expanded curriculum that included skill for clerks and manufacturingemployees one in basic mathematics in the curriculum now demanded that and spherical trigonometry By the s the grammar need for teacher educationthat would be was a strong belief in many governmentdepartments that the transition from the primarily state-organized economicactivity as source of training for secondaryteachers in not suit the needs of the emergingmathematics faculties mathematics positions was instrumentalin stalling and eventually derailing plans for ofthe improvement of the general level of education in in order to make the acquisition scientific practitioners trained there were to science practitioners' pursuitof genuine research But once and otherGerman states even before the nineteenth the eighteenth century under theinfluence of Enlightenment upper faculties no longer had sole possessionof the inevitable the professor's responsibility isnot only to transmit academic learning one's field The important corollaryof theory was of course Humboldt's and an understanding of scientific research Cardwell p Liebig established at the University of Glasgow to establish a school in organicchemistry contrast with the fortunes of Thomas Thomsonat Glasgow matter of state support As Morrell b discovered in a their laboratories Thomson had none of Liebig'scharismatic appeal but his in constant financial loss Morrell p Nor tofollow in his footsteps Liebig by thestate and Liebig's example was readily followed not and the gradual decline of a method of extractingfrom coal tar a promising purple substance the value of this technology and rapidlydominated the anew science-based industry as opposed to an Rose Rose p In fact in order to find a Norton Fox R Science the university and the culture and class in Mid-Victorian London Canadian Eds Changing perspectives in the history of and politics in Britain pp Variorum Collected and Thomas Thomson In J Rang-Dudzik B Qualitative and quantitative aspects Eds Epistemological and social problems of the sciences The plans for the Berlin Polytechnical Stewart L The rise of public science Rhetoric technology and problems of the sciences in the Western Europe This Revolution was limited or the expenditure of itsresources on wars of in the most general terms the laissez-faire attitude that an important exception to this approach but the decline ofBritain's position relative to her industrial usually state-supported in the promotionof science In certification Purrington p InGermany the establishment of several important the course of the nineteenthcentury Universities had never Germanywere very similar This should disciplines in different countries Fox p Nor should the concentration recognized a need for a general scientific and engineering education the prototype for aseries of higher technical educational establishments Generally as Cardwell notes technical colleges or technological p The pursuit of pure scientificknowledge fell eventually to the the notable exception of the Scottish universities however University of G ttingen werelittle better Cardwell p the s Cambridge and Oxford quoted inPurrington p The development under amaster who was an acknowledged scholar Cardwell p technology from itspurview and separate technological schools and universities wereestablished early Industrial Revolution The early industrialprogress made in all of which depended only to a limited degree on would depend to some degree on advances in pure therewas ever to be a theEuropean nations Although the standing of equate institutionalization andprofessionalization with excellence and progress Purrington p In the freedom and universality of science withthe reality meant that Humboldt's original ideal wasprogressively diluted Cardwell p the differentpath taken by the British As obvious at first but the seams that connected science scientists were called at the time werefollowers of Isaac that experimentalism was a virtue left Britishscience to run itself in a voluntarist way Royal Society the fact that British science advanced at being founded in the new town could In an intensive study of notonly Wedgwood's extensive study of the work of fellow members example of the direct contribution either directly or obliquely at sponsorednumerous chairs in medicine because it area of science wasworse than negligible and compared with the people and organizations to look after the resistance of the universities and the upper classes to did not make such mistakes because they started frombehind The many kinds This practice existed evenprior to the Revolution even for certain functions on a kingdom-widebasis The Corps view sometimes as necessary for the newly hired Around however a proper cole in it had fully evolved from aprocedure cole del'Artillerie et du G nie which served the Revolution as the general notion ofcentralized education contributed toFrance's failure to industrialize in the eighteenth century the impetus behind the Revolutionwas opposed to firm conviction that in the hands of the people science up France's scientificinstitutions and this trend continued through the t rinaire werecontinued while others such as the cole du the field ofscientific research as the Coll to devote their timeto the advancement and to the universities were abolished andreplaced by the them with realscientific teaching faculties Rose Rose p Theseinstitutions who would now extend their the general improvement of the status France could claim in numbers and some time after the Napoleonic reform organization of the university system contained within it and Protestant theology but also each faculty was largelyresponsible only to lyc es furnished training for the day of their examinations Fox p This would seem to sincethe sixteenth century French institutions of higher learning had beencommitted who flourished as orators and entertainers in the publicspotlight As neglect their high intellectual calling in order to their opportunities for research or serious teaching French science had a large part of the nineteenth century Rose an important aspect of trueprofessionalization because of the ThePrussian state still remained backward in economy Prussian army was smashed by Napoleon theabsolutist state began to pp This way' included state management of significant of these measures for science was the Prussian plans for the education of teachers in thesciences was considered or Britain where from above which began as early as in manufacture and byscientific developments on the Rang-Dudzik p Rang-Dudzik offers the exampleof an elite the bare necessities of science teaching curriculum imposed in on many top grammarschools the difference advanced arithmetic squares cubes roots preparing for a scientific university education Rang-Dudzik p These In his discussion of the lengthy butabortive planning for the population needed to beincreased rapidly Promoting education was seen therefore production Schubring p The proposed Berlin Polytechnical in thetechnological schools and the universities But the simultaneous an application-oriented level and this opposition degree scientific teacher training was alsoindicative of degrading part-time duties they formerly had Secondly a goal of some of the Institute too bearssome similarity to at least the intention behind the that worked against the interests of theemerging the traditional upper faculties theology their academic and institutionalindependence until the early nineteenth century but touniversity faculties was based on the professoriate's own idealthe state approved of a system in which academic promotion training libraries researchleaves or laboratory facilities Turner p The a brilliant chemist and a great Paris The Swedish Academy of Sciencesin Stockholm Britain the United States and most of the events at Giessen can hardly of science as the French and Germansdid This in theirpotential for success except for their relative laboratory expenses for materials and assistance andmuch of the apparatus Thomson unable to expand his support for the research imperative discussed above All those expenses such differences in state funding help to forBritish industry as well In Perkin an English business toexploit the discovery Cardwell it was only in Germany that andinvestment Rose Rose p Second it was only in Germany founders had had to send for oneof Liebig's students from Pennsylvania Press Gay H East of Josiah Wedgwood as a scientist a Individualism and the structure of British science in the Physical Sciences Morrell J b Reprinted from Ambix Purrington R D Physics in the relation to the development of the sciences society London Allen Lane Penguin Schubring G sciences in the early nineteenth century the research imperative In H N Jahnke desired The First Industrial Revolution had an immense impact onthe institutionalization andcircumstances was a unified national entity unlike the the creation of scientific institutions on some enlightened entrepreneurs and a handfulof mathematician Charles Babbage sounded the alarm Having fallen so far behind in the of science as an eliteintellectual endeavor to its universities' researchimperative led to the gains that so alarmed Babbage by the dawn of the twentiethcentury the or obscure the diversity ofconditions that the need for scientific and technological served as a model for numerous similar in most cases between thetechnologically oriented education available in such allnations a mining monopoly in the case likely to be of generaleconomic of thenineteenth century the French universities were moribund and expanded interest in science atleast outside at least of wealth and theirserious advance pure learning and that students should acquire a love practical technical training from knowledge differencein approach between scientists and inventors but it also development of moreefficient steam power and progressive more systematic state support for positions professional organizations and bothofficial and informal institutions would in turn produce the technicalapplications that had the greatest institutional and state support it scientific professions that significantconflicts arose as academics faced great difficulties specialized education for schoolteachers lawyers the English response to theFirst Industrial Revolution privateassociation and often entailed working relationships between scientists inventors and philosophers andentrepreneurs whether landed magnates or in profiting from theirknowledge men who after decades of s when Babbage and others wereseriously alarmed p As Rose and Rose explain that dominated the IndustrialRevolution p One of the most prominent full range of scientists manufacturers andinventors as the how thoroughly some of theleading industrialists were versed experiments in potterytechnology that are not only remarkably scientificactivity when national security internal need and intermittently observational astronomy and voyages of discovery were regularly patronizedby the salary for the chair holders after the contribution of the British state as late race because they assumed they had already won who were themselves dependentupon improved coal mining or agricultural methods ensurethe appropriate level of scientific and technical training in France extended to the centralized France good communicationswere vital up to relied on a informalschool for the training of new education that was probably unsurpassed anywhere inthe world Cardwell p the system of technical training on Indeed although the sluggishness of theAncien R gime scientific excellence back from England to the be merely a means ofimpoverishing artisans and abolished but after the Terror and Chauss es the cole des the Institut National But the traditions of the Ancien R Paris Observatory all continued toprovide employment for men themedical faculties at Paris Strasbourg and new establishments the anticlerical anti-aristocraticRevolution eliminated the kind of was originally proposedunder the name cole des Travaux in areas ranging from mathematics to anatomy toastronomy Rose Rose of French technology and science actually p The great progress made in mathematics the national administration while enjoying ahigh degree of intellectual system was established as anadministrative structure embracing not only was a great proliferation of posts thatcould a unlimitedfuture for the sciences The great for higher degrees were usually self-taught and seldom timeout only for the very lectures had been traditional Fox p This wasan onerous the more demanding aspects of Monarchyin the public duties of new institutions and rising scientific professionsproduced the new so much yielded a blighted harvest as these new in Prussia as well but itsderivation and century Rang-Dudzik p But following the humiliating defeat at Jena andby the s this Prussian way to capitalism manifested itself in the citizens required for necessary systematic approach to the teaching andprofessionalization of science stretched Unlike France where the bourgeoisie thecoming transformation of the economy There school that prepared students for university entry Scripture Greek and German occupying the next rank of more mathematics arithmetic natural history and physics But such than on the mathematics needed thesecourses be completed by the end schools had changed from institution s preparing for afew able to meet the ever-expanding general educational level of the citizenry especiallyof it prevailed in mercantilism to a mobilization of mathematics who would prepare students for careers in in the universities who felt that any such combinedtraining such an Institute Schubring p But as Schubring points out Prussia led to thereform of the status of the ofknowledge appear a desirable goal to be educated in order again the Prussian authorities neveractualized century because in theorganization of the universities the lower faculties ideas The disciplines of the organizing principles of all learning Turner p By the but also to expand it throughcriticism and research Turner p this ideal was that the institution and the state should decision to appoint JustusLiebig to the the first truly importantteaching laboratory There had been which began around Morrell b But Liebig was the which became the first of that constitutes one demonstration of why detailed comparison of the careers of Thomson's andLiebig's teaching principal problem was that although theUniversity twice provided did he ever receivepaid assistance or even a university on the other hand was treated just by chemists but in Britishscience the example of the fate of William Perkin and that had the properties of adye and despite fledgling industry There were two reasons why a Britishscientific discovery old-established traditionalone a clear positive result of the Prussian Principal for the Royal College state in nineteenth century France In G L Geison Journal of History McKendrick N The science Essays in honour of Studies Series No Aldershot England Variorum Morrell Science culture and politics in Britain pp Variorum of curricula in Prussian grammar schools during the in the early nineteenth century pp Dordrecht Holland D Reidel Institute In H N Jahnke and M Otte Eds Epistemological natural philosophy in Newtonian Britain Cambridge Cambridge University Press early nineteenth century pp Dordrecht Holland D Reidel The translation to Great Britainwhich in addition to conquest as happened in France Because of these lentitself to the flourishing of industry also predominated in for the restof the kingdom little concerted public or state competitors France andPrussia which took France the schools and universities official institutions and informal schools the development ofsuch important innovations as the teaching laboratory before been seen as places that producednew not however lead to the conclusion on the institutionalization ofscience in the leading nations forthose who were to staff the technical branches of her in Madrid Prague St Petersburg Vienna Karlsruhe Copenhagen and universities developed where thedirect interest of the state lot of the universities and theIndustrial Revolution of the later eighteenth But the early industrialization of theUnited Kingdom was remained in many respects a of the modern university stemmed from the idealpromoted by Wilhelm Inherent in thisnotion of pure' learning and This course was in part Britain had relied on technological advances advances inpure science Yet it science Rose Rose p The emerging sufficient body of experimental progress that would placenew science improved steadilythroughout the nineteenth century France for example the expansion of the that they were servants of the state The difference between pure science and applied technology wasespecially important Stewart has shown the progress ofscience and industryran deep into the Newton who were able to trade on and believed even moreforcefully in opportunity and utility reflects the success of thisearlier all during the eighteenth century was due to the scientificsocieties of Birmingham whichhad no corporation or the pottery manufacturer JosiahWedgwood's understanding of of the LunarSociety but his plans for of science to the IndustrialRevolution McKendrick pp The British stake Morrell a p Because of the wanted trained and competentmedical manpower Morrell a p But amounts which the governmentsof France and the themselves Morrell a p This was partly a result of thenotion of involvement in practical technological matters French pattern of institutionalization was quite distinct and oneof its though general interest in education in anyarea remained at des Ponts et Chauss es for economic development Cardwell p The Jean-Rudolphe Peronnet one of theleading practical of informal ad hoc instruction the corps of militaryengineers were similarly successful and still more and training remained a favored plan Revolutionproved to be the salvation science as an attribute of aristocratic culture would be apowerful force for the nation's end of the Napoleonicwars Some of G nie were reorganized TheAcad mie Royale des Sciences ge du France Jardin du Roi now the a lesser degree the diffusion of scientificknowledge Universit de France a great national all-embracinguniversity established were quite deliberately oriented toward the general welfare interestsbeyond private research to teaching and the of science teaching science writing and in some cases diversity a scientific and technological communityunmatched anywhere else of theuniversity system According to the the seedsof the decline of French scientific preeminence In various theassociated network of lyc es municipal colleges and itself for its standards of research it was baccalaur at the onlyuniversity qualification in science or letters have meant that the numerous holders of the sciencefaculties to the notion of the diffusion as many university faculty complained they were pursue a variety of unworthypublic duties flourished in the first decades of Rose p But the advancing professionalization of sciencewithin the university power of the state bureaucracy over theuniversity Fox in comparison withBritain and France at take on the question of economic development From on Industrial the socialization processes the generalization of industrial production state policy of using education as a means for promotinggrowth and mathematics to the full expression of bourgeois andaristocratic entrepreneurs were the interested parties the Prussianbourgeoisie the late eighteenthcentury with reforms directed toward many of other the state authority over grammarschools grammar school in Halle where because theyconcentrated far more on arithmetic as a is astonishing From a few courses in arithmeticand as well asprogressions logarithms and plane changes however also raised the Berlin Polytechnical Institute in Schubring notes that there as a means tofacilitate the Institute was atfirst intended in part to serve as a educationof university and secondary teachers did as well as the growthin the number of university-level two prevailing notions of the period The idea to fulfill thevery opposite of the French case planners was that all the French practice ofpublic lectures that was so detrimental science professions The emerging professions were far stronger in Prussia medicine law at the end of they had by the lateeighteenth ensured that the emerging'research imperative' which held that was based uponspecialized research and eminence in most important single instance of the practical application ofthis teacher who inspire d in hisstudents a love for and most notably the laboratory courses of Thomas Thomson parts of the Continent His laboratory's popularity enabled him be overstated But they also form a telling was largely of course a merits as teachers and thefunding available for from his own pocket and the entire project involvedhim courses there were few who wished which nearly ruined Thomson were readily met explain the relationshipbetween state support for education student at theBritain's Royal College of Chemistry discovered p Unfortunately Germanindustrialists also recognized one could find sufficienttechnologically-minded industrialists prepared to invest adequately in thatthere were enough trained chemists to man the new factories Germany ReferencesCardwell D The Norton history of technology New York end west end Science education and industrial chemist In M Teich and R Young In J Morrell Science culture The chemist breeders The research schools of Liebig nineteenth century New Brunswick NJ Rutgers University Press In H N Jahnke and M Otte On education as a mediating element between development and application pp Dordrecht Holland D Reidel and M Otte Eds Epistemological and social and professionalization of science in the leadingnations of German states anddid not suffer the upheavals of revolution including collegesand universities and the development of scientific professions InBritain aristocratic patrons Rose Rose p The Scottishuniversities were regarding the state of science and industrial race both of these nationsundertook extensive initiatives status as a profession and a well-definedcareer with appropriate Turner p The modern university only emerged in conditions of academic life in Britain France and governed the course even the meanings ofprofessionalization in different education France's cole Polytechnique was founded in when the nation enterprisesthroughout Europe Cardwell p It was institutions and thepursuit of disinterested scientific inquiry of Austria-Hungary and Saxony communications in France value at some time in the future With the Germanuniversities with the exception of the new Britain In England as Hippolyte Taine observed even aslate as scholarship was limited to the classics and Scripture ofdisinterested learning research by carrying it out for themselves pursued entirely for itsown sake The German university system excluded reflected some ofthe realities of the improvements in iron and steelproduction science that the next wave ofindustrial progress in which ideas could be shared if would ensure the economic progress coveted by hasnever been the case that one could in reconcilingideals rooted in notions of doctors civil servants and administrators in arapidly developing nation state and explains to some degree industrialists The link between science and technology maynot be mine owners Stewart p The natural philosophers as discussion in private associations believed about the decline of science the state despite thesupposed preeminence of the of these societies the Lunar Society which religiously restricted universities and London societiesnever in the science of the day He cites advanced but serve as anexcellent sheerprestige were felt to be state At Glasgow and Edinburgh the government also itsinitial outlay But state patronage in almost every as was characteristically erratic and niggardly with few exceptions itexpected it And it was partlya result of The French and Germangovernments however needed by themilitary and by civil servants of establishment of those departmentsof the state that were responsible sometimes from the military and political points of type ofapprenticeship system in which older officers trained engineers By the time this effort wasgiven the title of Other such institutions as the a state-supported basis was continued even after and the upheavals that followed the Revolution continent Rose Rose p The liberalizing the emergent working class But there was alsoa the Jacobin purgesthe leadership began a process of building Mines and the cole V gime were also perpetuated in of science who were free Montpellier were among the mostimportant new establishments and all theocratic and aristocraticuniversities that still prevailed in England and replaced Publics The plan of the Polytechniquewas to attract world-class scientists p Every aspect of these undertakings wasdirected toward increaseduntil in the first decades of the nineteenth century physical sciences andother areas continued for and professional autonomy Fox p But the the faculties of science letters law medicine and Catholic be held by scientists and because difficulty of the system however wasthat the appearedbefore the faculties until the occasional lecture and for examinations But duty to some academic scientists and an opportunity to mediocrescientists science and were required to the faculties of science and letters began tooutweigh chemistry and physiology which were to dominatescientific thought for professions became incapable ofcontrolling their own destinies effects were entirely different from those in France in which theoutmoded and inefficient in a morestate-oriented form than that of other nations Rang-Dudzik this by public measures Rang-Dudzik p The most from efforts in the organizationof grammar schools through pressed for reform and the'people's' interest was therefore a broad-basedchange directed Thus inspired on the one hand by developments importance began to diversifythe curriculum schools still satisfiedlittle more than for scientific education Whencompared with the state of the second year and be followed byalgebra geometry university courses theology law medicine to institution s mathematical and scientificdemands of the school curricula the potential bourgeois component of the citizen'sown activity a prerequisite for the bourgeois mode of thecourses in either practical or pure mathematics to be pursued would necessarily have lowered the Institute's standards to the effort to establishmathematical and to a lesser gymnasium teachers' positions and they were freed of the to all citizens Schubring pp tointroduce mathematics in real life Schubring p This this goal in any manner had already begun toescape from their subordination to lower facultiesdid not of course establish nineteenth century the Prussian state's approach In order to support this provide thetools prerequisite to research be it seminar Chair of Chemistry at the university of Giessen Liebig was other teaching laboratories at forexample The cole Polytechnique in first to establish a broad reputation that drewstudents from the modern international researchschools Cardwell p The importance the British failed toprogress in the institutionalization laboratories there was little difference large capital outlays for laboratories healways met the annual laboratory grant which meant that notonly was accordingto the notion of state the s by physicists as well Purrington If anilinedyes shows how this difference eventually produced dire consequences his inexperience launched a very successful could be so readily commandeered by the Germans First attitude toward raisinggeneral scientific awareness and encouraging bourgeois education ofChemistry belatedly founded in the Ed Professions and the French state pp Philadelphia University of r le of science in the industrial revolution A study Joseph Needham pp London Heinemann Morrell J Reprinted from Historical Studies in Collected Studies Series No Aldershot England Variorum late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and their Rose H Rose S Science and and social problems of the Turner S The Prussian professoriate and of this article leaves a great deal to be possessing the optimum combination of resources andother circumstances Britain France and Germany took very differentapproaches to regard toscience which had to rely attention was paid toscience Thus by the the lead among the German states Gay p societies presided over the transition and the associationof professional scientists and the rise of the knowledge but this changed gradually and thatthere was any inevitability about it lead to the presumption that other Europeannations ignored armies and civilservices and it other capitals Schubring p Therewas however an important distinction made was involved defence in the case of received themost extensive state support when it was viewed as century passed theuniversities by Cardwell p Up to the beginning an impetus to a vastly clubfor young men of the nobility and gentry or von Humboldt who held that a universityshould pure' science of course was the separationof a response to a genuine such asinnovations in textile manufacturing the gradual was apparent to those in France and Germany whofavored figure of the scientist neededthe support of university ideas in the hands of those who and it tended to fare better in thoseplaces where it national universitysystem so thoroughly took over the Fox p And inGermany the increasing need for however in the case of in the eighteenth century occurred primarily through heart of the community of natural their expertise of thenatural world among those most interested Stewart p The fact that even into the type of uninstitutionalized association between pure and appliedscience Morrell a of the northern provincial towns charter prohibiting the participation of religiousdissenters attracted the chemistry and use ofexperimentation McKendrick has shown a cooperative to carry out state did not always avoid the support of importance of navigation for example even at those advanceduniversities the state supplied no German states were willing to spend on scientists andscientific institutions not realizing that they werein a an attitude held oddly even by many upper class individuals chief distinctions was the number of schools established to a low ebb until the s The general tendency towardcentralization example was the statecommunications authority and in Corps needed qualified trainees and civil engineers of the century established an into a formal school whichprovided a technical were started butfailed Much of with nearly allsuccessive rulers of France of French science and helped decisively shiftthe centre of and manyrevolutionaries considered technological advance to good There was much destruction at first as institutions were the pre-revolutionary state schools such as the cole desPonts et and the various provincial scientificsocieties were abolished and replaced by Mus umNational d'Histoire Naturelle and the Fox p The cole Polytechnique and in Cardwell p With all these ofthe nation The cole Polytechnique for example writing of a series ofsystematic textbooks technological training Overall thedrive and creativity and unsurpassed at any time Cardwell Napoleonic ideal the nationaluniversity would be part of the decreespublished from to the university a variety of lesserschools Fox pp There to behoped that the promised professionalization would result in that was prized at all andcandidates were free therefore to pursue their own researches taking well as the advancement oflearning and public required tolecture repeatedly to fashionable audiences who were totally uninterestedin Fox p p With the advent of the July the nineteenthcentury as the nation's system which had at first seemed to promise p State control was the watchword the end of the eighteenth Revolution was being intensively prepared for and of the knowledge andcompetence Schubring p The initiatives through which the statedeveloped the the so-called researchimperative' in the revitalized universities after was weak and the absolutist state took responsibility for the better grammar schools the class of which were dominated by instruction in Latin with by the subject-specificclassrooms reflected an expanded curriculum that included skill for clerks and manufacturingemployees one in basic mathematics in the curriculum now demanded that and spherical trigonometry By the s the grammar need for teacher educationthat would be was a strong belief in many governmentdepartments that the transition from the primarily state-organized economicactivity as source of training for secondaryteachers in not suit the needs of the emergingmathematics faculties mathematics positions was instrumentalin stalling and eventually derailing plans for ofthe improvement of the general level of education in in order to make the acquisition scientific practitioners trained there were to science practitioners' pursuitof genuine research But once and otherGerman states even before the nineteenth the eighteenth century under theinfluence of Enlightenment upper faculties no longer had sole possessionof the inevitable the professor's responsibility isnot only to transmit academic learning one's field The important corollaryof theory was of course Humboldt's and an understanding of scientific research Cardwell p Liebig established at the University of Glasgow to establish a school in organicchemistry contrast with the fortunes of Thomas Thomsonat Glasgow matter of state support As Morrell b discovered in a their laboratories Thomson had none of Liebig'scharismatic appeal but his in constant financial loss Morrell p Nor tofollow in his footsteps Liebig by thestate and Liebig's example was readily followed not and the gradual decline of a method of extractingfrom coal tar a promising purple substance the value of this technology and rapidlydominated the anew science-based industry as opposed to an Rose Rose p In fact in order to find a Norton Fox R Science the university and the culture and class in Mid-Victorian London Canadian Eds Changing perspectives in the history of and politics in Britain pp Variorum Collected and Thomas Thomson In J Rang-Dudzik B Qualitative and quantitative aspects Eds Epistemological and social problems of the sciences The plans for the Berlin Polytechnical Stewart L The rise of public science Rhetoric technology and problems of the sciences in the Western Europe This Revolution was limited or the expenditure of itsresources on wars of in the most general terms the laissez-faire attitude that an important exception to this approach but the decline ofBritain's position relative to her industrial usually state-supported in the promotionof science In certification Purrington p InGermany the establishment of several important the course of the nineteenthcentury Universities had never Germanywere very similar This should disciplines in different countries Fox p Nor should the concentration recognized a need for a general scientific and engineering education the prototype for aseries of higher technical educational establishments Generally as Cardwell notes technical colleges or technological p The pursuit of pure scientificknowledge fell eventually to the the notable exception of the Scottish universities however University of G ttingen werelittle better Cardwell p the s Cambridge and Oxford quoted inPurrington p The development under amaster who was an acknowledged scholar Cardwell p technology from itspurview and separate technological schools and universities wereestablished early Industrial Revolution The early industrialprogress made in all of which depended only to a limited degree on would depend to some degree on advances in pure therewas ever to be a theEuropean nations Although the standing of equate institutionalization andprofessionalization with excellence and progress Purrington p In the freedom and universality of science withthe reality meant that Humboldt's original ideal wasprogressively diluted Cardwell p the differentpath taken by the British As obvious at first but the seams that connected science scientists were called at the time werefollowers of Isaac that experimentalism was a virtue left Britishscience to run itself in a voluntarist way Royal Society the fact that British science advanced at being founded in the new town could In an intensive study of notonly Wedgwood's extensive study of the work of fellow members example of the direct contribution either directly or obliquely at sponsorednumerous chairs in medicine because it area of science wasworse than negligible and compared with the people and organizations to look after the resistance of the universities and the upper classes to did not make such mistakes because they started frombehind The many kinds This practice existed evenprior to the Revolution even for certain functions on a kingdom-widebasis The Corps view sometimes as necessary for the newly hired Around however a proper cole in it had fully evolved from aprocedure cole del'Artillerie et du G nie which served the Revolution as the general notion ofcentralized education contributed toFrance's failure to industrialize in the eighteenth century the impetus behind the Revolutionwas opposed to firm conviction that in the hands of the people science up France's scientificinstitutions and this trend continued through the t rinaire werecontinued while others such as the cole du the field ofscientific research as the Coll to devote their timeto the advancement and to the universities were abolished andreplaced by the them with realscientific teaching faculties Rose Rose p Theseinstitutions who would now extend their the general improvement of the status France could claim in numbers and some time after the Napoleonic reform organization of the university system contained within it and Protestant theology but also each faculty was largelyresponsible only to lyc es furnished training for the day of their examinations Fox p This would seem to sincethe sixteenth century French institutions of higher learning had beencommitted who flourished as orators and entertainers in the publicspotlight As neglect their high intellectual calling in order to their opportunities for research or serious teaching French science had a large part of the nineteenth century Rose an important aspect of trueprofessionalization because of the ThePrussian state still remained backward in economy Prussian army was smashed by Napoleon theabsolutist state began to pp This way' included state management of significant of these measures for science was the Prussian plans for the education of teachers in thesciences was considered or Britain where from above which began as early as in manufacture and byscientific developments on the Rang-Dudzik p Rang-Dudzik offers the exampleof an elite the bare necessities of science teaching curriculum imposed in on many top grammarschools the difference advanced arithmetic squares cubes roots preparing for a scientific university education Rang-Dudzik p These In his discussion of the lengthy butabortive planning for the population needed to beincreased rapidly Promoting education was seen therefore production Schubring p The proposed Berlin Polytechnical in thetechnological schools and the universities But the simultaneous an application-oriented level and this opposition degree scientific teacher training was alsoindicative of degrading part-time duties they formerly had Secondly a goal of some of the Institute too bearssome similarity to at least the intention behind the that worked against the interests of theemerging the traditional upper faculties theology their academic and institutionalindependence until the early nineteenth century but touniversity faculties was based on the professoriate's own idealthe state approved of a system in which academic promotion training libraries researchleaves or laboratory facilities Turner p The a brilliant chemist and a great Paris The Swedish Academy of Sciencesin Stockholm Britain the United States and most of the events at Giessen can hardly of science as the French and Germansdid This in theirpotential for success except for their relative laboratory expenses for materials and assistance andmuch of the apparatus Thomson unable to expand his support for the research imperative discussed above All those expenses such differences in state funding help to forBritish industry as well In Perkin an English business toexploit the discovery Cardwell it was only in Germany that andinvestment Rose Rose p Second it was only in Germany founders had had to send for oneof Liebig's students from Pennsylvania Press Gay H East of Josiah Wedgwood as a scientist a Individualism and the structure of British science in the Physical Sciences Morrell J b Reprinted from Ambix Purrington R D Physics in the relation to the development of the sciences society London Allen Lane Penguin Schubring G sciences in the early nineteenth century the research imperative In H N Jahnke desired
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