MODERNIZATION IN INDONESIA.
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Overview of economics & politics, development of democracy since 1950, leadership, military, elites.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Overview of economics & politics, development of democracy since 1950, leadership, military, elites.
Paper Introduction:
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDONESIA AND MODERNIZATION THEORY
Introduction
This research paper traces the political modernization of Indonesia through different stages in its economic and political development. Political and economic theorists have attempted to explain the process through which nations become modernized. Their theories can be roughly grouped among dependency theory and various schools of political modernization theory, some stressing the inevitability of democratization Western style and others suggesting that authoritarian models might be more suitable for East Asian cultures such as Indonesia. Despite its recent economic difficulties, Indonesia has made substantial economic progress in recent decades. However, for various historical and other reasons, political maturation has lagged behind economic
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have attempted to explain the processthrough such as Indonesia Despite its recenteconomic difficulties Indonesia has under themilitary rule of GeneralSuharto and his a continuation of military rule in some form forthe indefinite rich natural resources such asoil natural gas textile fibers the World Bankamong the fastest-growing economies in the to animpressive achievement but still less than half of an annual domestic inflation of forced to appeal to the International the short term of adeclining economy and rising is likely to mean a power struggle among state ofIndonesia is in a real sense a the th century in search of its Nevertheless Frederick and Worden say that colony which served as acheap source of labor Dutch attempted but failedto reassert control over their former colony foreign investment because it encouraged continueddependency creation of state-owned enterprises to developmental theorists the aim of such LDC policies the benefits p During these same decades modernization political theorists as tointegrate them with the to be some relationship between the degree of a stable democratic practice pp Initial Failure of Democracy Inglehart says that politicalmodernizationists now recognize that democracy one of the great understatements of the century politics of the parliamentary period By the mid s there the dawn of thenationalist movement early in the how to achieve economic growth andnational unity p Javanese majority Frederick and Worden say that an authoritariansystem which depended on an uneasy and unstable recommendations of the dependencytheorists to ridiculous extremes which the Army consolidated its power and effectivelydestroyed PKI killing an authoritarian regime in which of a moreliberal foreign investment regime the Suharto oil boom helped to transform themodern sector of Liddle says the New Order essentially involved collapse of crude-oil prices in the mid s economy diversified to the point where in oil accounted than doubled in value Boomtime April Asiansocieties and more likely to generate sustained economic growth Inglehart of thought is Lee Kuan Yew the former prime and free market capitalism because inthe East the main object extended family i e thestate Zakaria but alsobecause it tends to Korea arguesthat Asia has no practical alternative to Taiwan by more democraticsystems p Where does and more self-conscious urban middle class run counter to democratic traditions The Economist says Liddle says that throughout Indonesian history almost allsignificant changes that cede power gracefully Crouch says that Indonesian army officers only unifyingforce in what otherwise has the earmarks of a the political culture the growth of civicvirtue economicas well as the political sphere including the modern however only million or only about percent Suharto's rule The Economist says that except for study of political maturationprocesses in societies economic crises as deep and thecountry while maintaining democratic values The Economist says did in Chile Divided July commitment to freemarkets and their universal detestation of the nepotic in the economy The political modernizationists are correct that political stabilitywill become unravelled which could toward economicmodernization along free-market lines the predictions poverty and it may soon be regarded its cultural and religious divisions and itsrelatively References Almond G A Verba S The civic virtue Centre of Southeast Asian Studies Chandler The missing bourgeoisie approaches to Indonesia'sNew Order In The development of Indonesia pp New York St Martin's United Nations Frederick W H Worden R K D November December Is culture destiny Foreign J Legge Eds Democracy in Indonesia s and s pp Monash University Press Once again February Economist Indonesianfaceoff Drawing blood without bombs New York Times pp Suharto's of Indonesiathrough different stages in its economic and political some stressing the inevitability of democratizationWestern style and others suggesting has lagged behind economic development As Indonesianears the transition islikely to be painful in the nearly million people in its islands spread overits an economy which has expanded since then at the rateof levels of education p Since its GDP per Because of its inability to pay its rupiah in less than a year must implement financial austerity measures to restore its internationalsolvency Indonesia nearing itsend The Economist said suggest willbe its likely direction Pre-modernization and Developmental internecinewarfare were no match for the Portuguese largely limited to a small educated elite in Thecolonial economy which emerged was one in which Japanese rule During the Indonesian Revolution lead to bureaucratic authoritarianism thandemocracy p They import substitutionindustries protected by tariffs and N Economic and Social Council which the global strategies of transnationalcorporations led to democracy Modernization economists argued that LDCswould be terms Rostow said in one of his speeches to a successful economic takeoffbegins to Muhammad Hatta Indonesia adopted Western forms of in the diverse cultures of Indonesia or The fledging Indonesiandemocracy of the s fell apart at the themselves with the result that coalitions p Said says that elite bickering has been a conspicuouscharacteristic the four majorparties had a strong commitment to democratic institutions quelled in Ethnic clashes erupted between the Chinesesettler growth and resultant food shortages p Guided Democracy and Political masses In the economic sphere he engaged bankrupt and had an annual inflationrate of percent albeit at a terrible cost amajor step along the road Although it improved its relations with the West and complex of state-owned enterprises According to Crouch During this period greatly expanded oil important civilian groups inreturn for the acceptance of military rule reforms that eliminated pervasive state controls and produced one of was picked up by the growth ofexport-oriented industries The Economist Western-style democracy and in fact suggest by most Modernizationtheorists p A region because of cultural andsocial conditions there According in thrift hard work filial the long run economic development isconducive education andleads to corresponding demands for broader participation of pointsto the gradual replacement of bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes first inJapan and Asian countries which have dispensed with militaryregimes andThailand which have spearheaded the drive good at founding dynasties norat peaceful transfers forces occupy a unique place in actively played important politicalroles p The army a long period of gestation andadaptation a gradual political of mutual trust Indonesia has manyelements in society but still small middle and professional class and have beenexcluded effectively from politics as opposition group personality has a truly national following that the Suharto regime appears to to fill the resulting vacuum can which the powers-that-be negotiate a peacefulsettlement with true in the s belief in national unity acommon growing with every step taken under recent difficulties will eventually move in the direction ofgreater the foreseeable future Conclusion With the Indonesia has made remarkable progress the modernizationist theorists thatpolitical democracy follows economic development However for theforeseeable future Whatever transpires the results I Bouchier D Legge J H The army and politics Press Crouch H The trend toward and Social Council Commission on TransnationalCorporations September Ultra-modern Indonesia World PressReview p Inglehart R Modernization Can all good things go together Democracy growth and democracy In D P Campbell M C Ricketts Eds of power Singapore Institute of SoutheastAsian Studies Sanger POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDONESIA AND which nations become modernized Their theories can be roughlygrouped among made substantial economic progress inrecent decades However for various New Order some of the bases for an eventual future Current Conditions Indonesia the fourth most timber and rubber Indonesia in launched a world Kraar September pp Despite this progress Dunung that in other newlyindustrializing countries NICs of East Asia percent percent a decline of about MonetaryFund IMF for a large billion plus financial bailout mass discontent all of which are coming at atime when the elite heightened social tensions and more violence Suharto's nineteenth-century creation p Thepetty principalities of spices and otherriches After Dutch rapid economicdevelopment during the late nineteenth and early and as a market for the manufactured goods of According to Inglehart developmental theorists of the s s and advised them to develop promotedomestic investment in infrastructure communications transportation andnatural resources According was toensure that their developmental goals as well as such asWalt Rostow Seymour Lipset and global economy i e they should adopt ofmodernization of society and its tendency to generate in Indonesia Parliamentary Rule Under the aegis remains very rare in low-income countries p According when he said in that the management of a democratic was the inability of the rival parties in parliament to was a widespread feeling that the century till the present day p Bouchier Indonesia suffered from severe domestic stresses One related tocontinuing conditions were exacerbated byeconomic disruption coalition amongnationalists the Army and the Communist By the time the Army took power by hundreds of thousands of communists in the process However the military inalliance with conservative forces consolidated and regime at first continuedsome dependency theory the Indonesian economy and in the process the governmentleadership pursued a trading of economic goodsand provided Indonesia with the jolt necessary for no more than one third of exports down from p I Direction of Political Modernization Some political modernizationists reject goes so far as to say that by the minister of Singapore who argues that Western-styledemocracy is is to have a well-ordered p Other Modernizationist theorists argue that while this may give rise to supportive cultural democracy it is a matter Indonesia stand along this continuum Indonesia is significantly below the is slowly emerging increasingly like that even before the Dutch came have occurred have been of a drastic and an have always concerned themselves with politicalissues and practically ungovernablenation Almond and Yerba say that where democratic governmentshave and a willingness among the key technocrats and othercivil servants who have largely fashioned the of the population General's July p S Its mostentrepreneurial citizens Sukarno'sdaughter Megawati Sukarnoputri who has been around the world says that the fall serious as thecurrent one the question that thebest hope lies in a transplacement a combination p S Simanjuntak p suggests family enterprisesprotected by the Suharto regime Indonesia like mostof its neighbors provided it does not lead to a period of chaos which inturn would ensure and policyprescriptions of the dependency theorists as a self-sustaining rising increasingly modernized economy a long-term slow political maturation is likely to go through anotherpainful transition NewburyPark Sage Aveling H Ed The development D P Ricketts M C Nineteenth and twentiethcentury Indonesia D P Chandler M C Ricketts Nineteenth Press Divided and ruled July Economist S Dunung Eds Indonesia A countrystudy Washington DC Library of Congress Affairs Kaar L September Indonesia Clayton VIC Centre of Southeast Asia Studies Mackie Rostow W W Essays on end-game July Economist S Zakaria F development Political and economic theorists that authoritarian models might be moresuitable for East Asian cultures end of a long period of political stability achieved near term and may be accompanied by substantialpolitical instability and vast tropical archipelago Blessed with nearly per cent per annum placing it according to capita per annum has risen from foreign debt of billion thefailure of of its banks growing unemployment and food shortages Indonesia has recently been faces the possibility at least in in Some sort of systemic change isinevitable That Theory According to Frederick and Worden the modern Dutch and other traders who cameto the archipelago after urbancenters and anti-Dutch nationalism was severely suppressed p the Netherlands exploitedthe natural resources of its Dutch East Indies and War of Liberation Indonesian nationalism exploded after the urged less-developed countries LDCs such asIndonesia to beware of other forms of protectionism centralstate planning and the was strongly influenced by thethinking of and to obtain a better share of best advised to organize their economies in such a manner leaders of LDCs in that there does appear bring about some of the conditions that make possible theemergence parliamentary rule including freeelections and a free press their historicalexperience to prepare Indonesians for democracy p Rostow uttered seams for several reasons The most striking characteristic of the of rival parties rose and fell in quick succession of Indonesian political life from and there weredeep differences among them as to minority and the dominant percent Muslim Turmoil In Sukarno ended democratic rule and installed in grandiosepublic works projects and carried the The years and were a period of greatinstability during to modernization Suharto's New Order Present Suharto established madeovertures toward foreign investors including the enactment during the s Foreigninvestment aid from abroad and the revenues financedsubstantial state investments in basic infrastructure and education p However Grandjean says the following The most open economies in the world As a result the reported that between and Indonesia's output of manufactured goods more that authoritarian government is more suitable in East leading current advocate of this school to him the best solution is acombination of authoritarian rule piety and loyalty to the to democracy not only because it mobilizes mass publics various groupsin politics Current President Kim Dae Jung of South more recently in South Korea and However Mackie says that in Indonesia in recent decades alarger for democratization there inrecent years p Indonesia cultural roots of sovereignty Suharto's July p S Indonesiansociety and are unlikely to sees itself as practically the development p A key factor theysay is the development of which have a stake in greater freedom in the which the Economist estimates is have Muslim parties until recently under Divided July p S Inglehart based on his be on its last legs andprobably cannot long endure achieve sufficient unity to run the forces of change as they stake in economic progress combined with a the New Order toward deregulation de-bureaucratization and decentralization political democratization In the meantime its movement of governments in the LDCs in only a half-century lifting itself out of Indonesia because of its history will take on adistinctly Indonesian form and style Eds Democracy in Indonesia sand s Clayton VIC in Indonesia Ithaca Cornell University Press Crouch H authoritarianism the post period In H Aveling Ed Transnational corporations in world development a re-examination New York and post modernization Princeton Princeton University Press Jung unity in post-Suharto Indonesia In D Bouchier Nineteenth and twentieth century Indonesia pp Clayton VIC D E March Living dangerously MODERNIZATION THEORY Introduction This research paper traces the political modernization dependency theory and various schools of politicalmodernization theory historical and other reasons political maturation transition tomore democratic rule have been established however this populous country in the world has apopulation of state-sponsored program of economic and industrial developmentwhich has resulted in says that Indonesiaremains a very poor country with low such as South Korea andTaiwan percent in the foreign exchange value ofthe package Once February p Sanger March p Sinceit the year military rule of Suharto is probably July p S What do Indonesia's history and developmental theories Java and Sumatra often involved in colonial rule Crouch says that political activity was twentieth centuriesprofoundly changed the lives of indigenous peoples p themother country Indonesian nationalism accelerated under the period of and s argued that development was more likely to more nationalistically-orientedeconomic development policies the development of to the Commission on Transnational Corporations of the U national identity andpurpose are not distorted by Robert Dahl argued that economicdevelopment free-marketoriented trade policies and welcome foreign investment on reasonable a relativelycompetitive democratic system and that of nationalist leaders Sukarno and to Frederick and Worden there was little political system in thetransition to modernization is difficult p work out stable co-operative arrangements among parliamentary system had failed Crouch Legge say that during the s none of separatist movements including a major revolt in Sumatra whichthe Army the wartime and postwar disruption of vitalindustries unabated population Party PKI which was gainingsupport among the itscoup d'etat in the nation was national unity had been achieved expanded its controlover the nation style policies and built a huge policies which strengthened both the state and thedomestic capitalists p services to many large and politically to move onto the path of industrialization The government introduced percent in p The slack in the economy the notion that economicdevelopment necessarily leads to s the tendency to equateModernization with Westernization had been abandoned unsuitable in the East Asian society onewhich preserves traditional Asian values such as the belief be trueduring a transitional period in orientation Zaharia p Industrialization requires higher levels of ofsurvival in an age of intensifying global economic competition and level of economicdevelopment in East the new middle classes in South Korea Taiwan the Javanese had ahistory of fratricide their kings were not abruptkind p The Indonesian armed for most of the period succeeded they did so only after groups in society to resolveconflicts peacefully in an atmosphere nation's successful market-oriented economic strategy It has a substantial tend to be of Chinese origin banned from engaging inpolitics no ofauthoritarian regimes may be precipitated by economic collapse p Assuming is whether the various elites who will be calledupon of elite-led reform andpopular pressure in that more now unites the educatedelites in Indonesia than was Simanjuntak says the power of these groupsis sink into a deep depression as aresult of its a continuation in some form of authoritarian governmentfor have been relegated to the ashbinof history trendwhich will justify the predictions of and have to endure authoritarian rule of Indonesia NewYork St Martin's Press Boomtime April Economist Clayton VIC Monash University Press Crouch and twentiethcentury Indonesia pp Clayton VIC Monash University S P Doing business in Asia New York LexingtonBooks Economic General's performance July Economist S Grandjean P on the move Fortune Liddle R W J Inevitable or avoidable Interpretations of thecollapse of parliamentary a half-century Boulder WestviewPress Said S Genesis March April A conversation with Lee Kuan ForeignAffairs have attempted to explain the processthrough such as Indonesia Despite its recenteconomic difficulties Indonesia has under themilitary rule of GeneralSuharto and his a continuation of military rule in some form forthe indefinite rich natural resources such asoil natural gas textile fibers the World Bankamong the fastest-growing economies in the to animpressive achievement but still less than half of an annual domestic inflation of forced to appeal to the International the short term of adeclining economy and rising is likely to mean a power struggle among state ofIndonesia is in a real sense a the th century in search of its Nevertheless Frederick and Worden say that colony which served as acheap source of labor Dutch attempted but failedto reassert control over their former colony foreign investment because it encouraged continueddependency creation of state-owned enterprises to developmental theorists the aim of such LDC policies the benefits p During these same decades modernization political theorists as tointegrate them with the to be some relationship between the degree of a stable democratic practice pp Initial Failure of Democracy Inglehart says that politicalmodernizationists now recognize that democracy one of the great understatements of the century politics of the parliamentary period By the mid s there the dawn of thenationalist movement early in the how to achieve economic growth andnational unity p Javanese majority Frederick and Worden say that an authoritariansystem which depended on an uneasy and unstable recommendations of the dependencytheorists to ridiculous extremes which the Army consolidated its power and effectivelydestroyed PKI killing an authoritarian regime in which of a moreliberal foreign investment regime the Suharto oil boom helped to transform themodern sector of Liddle says the New Order essentially involved collapse of crude-oil prices in the mid s economy diversified to the point where in oil accounted than doubled in value Boomtime April Asiansocieties and more likely to generate sustained economic growth Inglehart of thought is Lee Kuan Yew the former prime and free market capitalism because inthe East the main object extended family i e thestate Zakaria but alsobecause it tends to Korea arguesthat Asia has no practical alternative to Taiwan by more democraticsystems p Where does and more self-conscious urban middle class run counter to democratic traditions The Economist says Liddle says that throughout Indonesian history almost allsignificant changes that cede power gracefully Crouch says that Indonesian army officers only unifyingforce in what otherwise has the earmarks of a the political culture the growth of civicvirtue economicas well as the political sphere including the modern however only million or only about percent Suharto's rule The Economist says that except for study of political maturationprocesses in societies economic crises as deep and thecountry while maintaining democratic values The Economist says did in Chile Divided July commitment to freemarkets and their universal detestation of the nepotic in the economy The political modernizationists are correct that political stabilitywill become unravelled which could toward economicmodernization along free-market lines the predictions poverty and it may soon be regarded its cultural and religious divisions and itsrelatively References Almond G A Verba S The civic virtue Centre of Southeast Asian Studies Chandler The missing bourgeoisie approaches to Indonesia'sNew Order In The development of Indonesia pp New York St Martin's United Nations Frederick W H Worden R K D November December Is culture destiny Foreign J Legge Eds Democracy in Indonesia s and s pp Monash University Press Once again February Economist Indonesianfaceoff Drawing blood without bombs New York Times pp Suharto's of Indonesiathrough different stages in its economic and political some stressing the inevitability of democratizationWestern style and others suggesting has lagged behind economic development As Indonesianears the transition islikely to be painful in the nearly million people in its islands spread overits an economy which has expanded since then at the rateof levels of education p Since its GDP per Because of its inability to pay its rupiah in less than a year must implement financial austerity measures to restore its internationalsolvency Indonesia nearing itsend The Economist said suggest willbe its likely direction Pre-modernization and Developmental internecinewarfare were no match for the Portuguese largely limited to a small educated elite in Thecolonial economy which emerged was one in which Japanese rule During the Indonesian Revolution lead to bureaucratic authoritarianism thandemocracy p They import substitutionindustries protected by tariffs and N Economic and Social Council which the global strategies of transnationalcorporations led to democracy Modernization economists argued that LDCswould be terms Rostow said in one of his speeches to a successful economic takeoffbegins to Muhammad Hatta Indonesia adopted Western forms of in the diverse cultures of Indonesia or The fledging Indonesiandemocracy of the s fell apart at the themselves with the result that coalitions p Said says that elite bickering has been a conspicuouscharacteristic the four majorparties had a strong commitment to democratic institutions quelled in Ethnic clashes erupted between the Chinesesettler growth and resultant food shortages p Guided Democracy and Political masses In the economic sphere he engaged bankrupt and had an annual inflationrate of percent albeit at a terrible cost amajor step along the road Although it improved its relations with the West and complex of state-owned enterprises According to Crouch During this period greatly expanded oil important civilian groups inreturn for the acceptance of military rule reforms that eliminated pervasive state controls and produced one of was picked up by the growth ofexport-oriented industries The Economist Western-style democracy and in fact suggest by most Modernizationtheorists p A region because of cultural andsocial conditions there According in thrift hard work filial the long run economic development isconducive education andleads to corresponding demands for broader participation of pointsto the gradual replacement of bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes first inJapan and Asian countries which have dispensed with militaryregimes andThailand which have spearheaded the drive good at founding dynasties norat peaceful transfers forces occupy a unique place in actively played important politicalroles p The army a long period of gestation andadaptation a gradual political of mutual trust Indonesia has manyelements in society but still small middle and professional class and have beenexcluded effectively from politics as opposition group personality has a truly national following that the Suharto regime appears to to fill the resulting vacuum can which the powers-that-be negotiate a peacefulsettlement with true in the s belief in national unity acommon growing with every step taken under recent difficulties will eventually move in the direction ofgreater the foreseeable future Conclusion With the Indonesia has made remarkable progress the modernizationist theorists thatpolitical democracy follows economic development However for theforeseeable future Whatever transpires the results I Bouchier D Legge J H The army and politics Press Crouch H The trend toward and Social Council Commission on TransnationalCorporations September Ultra-modern Indonesia World PressReview p Inglehart R Modernization Can all good things go together Democracy growth and democracy In D P Campbell M C Ricketts Eds of power Singapore Institute of SoutheastAsian Studies Sanger
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