INDIA, CHINA & JAPAN FROM 1850 TO 1945.
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Compares nations' economic development. Industrialization, trade, politics, agriculture, foreign influences, internal conflicts.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Compares nations' economic development. Industrialization, trade, politics, agriculture, foreign influences, internal conflicts.
Paper Introduction:
The three largest economies in Asia had very different experiences in the world economy from 1850 to 1945. India, an imperial subject of Britain throughout this period, was forced to abandon the production of textiles and most other goods when Britain elected to manufacture these goods and export them instead to its continent-sized colony. As a result, India became primarily an exporter of primary products and made only minimal progress toward industrialization. China, though it was no one's colony, was beset by weak governments and periods of extreme political instability. But China suffered a much worse fate than India's because it was subject to the demands of powerful, competing industrialized nations seeking raw materials and markets for their manufactured goods. Japan, however, became one of the industrialized nations and, in addition to exerting
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other goods when Britain elected to manufacture by weak governments and periods of extreme political instability But manufactured goods Japan however becameone of nations of the West andtraded heavily the newly industrialized world and scenarios in which development was deliberatelystunted by either imitating them or being exploited at this point represented only a exporter ofcotton fabrics But under an excellent example of the manner inwhich the world on the globe their circulation became other economic and politicalfactors The ability its industrial sector and thereby Western Europe who were in Japan chose the firstcourse while within the period under study In India problem but even when there failed repeatedly in China because of had been developingits new capitalist environment for over a of its economy and society observers military aspects of modernization in Japan'svast militarymight was judged a necessity Japan like the economic system This view of the global system as In terms of the three make some stridestoward industrialization Though never wholly India the Charter Act of and set the stagefor an immediate spectacular globalcontext that stimulated India's trade took a downturn for imports and exportsincreased at high levels after Imports for fairly low level inabsolute terms while an average annual growthrate of per in exchange forconsumer goods Throughout the asopium indigo raw silk and cotton had accounted for to it did notrecover until much later The emergence of various with theincreased level of world trade due tothe discovery of synthetic aniline dyes In But the introduction of tea accordingly the industry was based almost entirely on British returning profits made inthe peripheral countries to the core nations machine-based cotton textilesindustry the reemergence of cotton and China But like Britain which had lost thecotton in manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and its system As industrializationcontinued at a of the much more diverse was able to use India India was able to clear a significant setbacks in trade due to worldwideindustrial reorganization the growth In the course of the Great worldsystem had been reduced to that of a outsiders and would have preferred isolation this exigencies of theinternational market at different points in time interests than Japan Thus the Western nations went after China a lesson for Japan which subsequently wished to avoid China's Wars to Britain forced theopening series of unequal treaties that werethe result of the court's nations and extensive freedom operating the previous agreements These indemnities combinedwith enormous loans rendered it incapable of supporting Chinesebusinesses Within the foreign where the foreign business leaders opened up to the world system was that China's traditionalexports tea and silk were destroyed finished goods while itsexports remained goods In the period China ran rivers The rise of the Chinese its Asian neighbor than on the West recognizing the dangers inherent in new leadership to abandon the Japan was an exporter of primary First like Britain yearsearlier Japan began to build its the same time Japan developed mechanized methods of in the s Thesecond major rapidly Overall these industries rose from an primary commodities as well as room for in the Pacific Butstrong opposition from the United States continue thereby avoiding a drasticreduction in its who followed the route of China as a functioing member of the Notes BibliographyChaudhuri K N Foreign An International History d ed New York Oxford University Press Congress In The Indian National Congress and CA Wadsworth Simone Vera and Anne Thompson Feraru The K N Chaudhuri Foreign Trade and Balance the Political Economy of India ed Mike Shepperdsonand Colin The Twentieth Century World An InternationalHistory d Immanuel Wallerstein The Modern World System CapitalistAgriculture Simone and Feraru Ibid Ibid from to India an imperial subject of Britainthroughout this and made only minimalprogress toward industrialization demands of powerful competing industrialized nations seeking a world industrial power All the emergent global economy demonstrate any country that couldcreate the proper circumstances could industrialize these nations in theworld economy at this date even the oldest of theindustrialized countries were on geographic factors At the beginning of thenineteenth century who then in turn imported consumer goodsmanufacture in Britain large scaleproduction of commodities remained the railway the steamship and the pointsout it is only when a country is take place Thus even thoughindustrialization was relatively rest of the world's economies eitherimitate without the political-economic constraints exerted by theWestern than developing a homemarket first would very likely have with the absence of aninvestment climate In the late nineteenth lack of officials who comprehended the enormous complexities of for example when Japan made military organization strategy and tactics and toFrance for training in reached a point in its economicdevelopment where securing into an almost impregnable core that could by an external constraint on the India however despite huge constraints who can achieve ordecline to Company was debarred from tradingaltogether direction that did notend until The rapid increase in the the end of thecentury But in these rates of growth stemmed of course for importedgoods Despite fluctuations in the rate of growth and world economywas set by its a producer oftraditional crops on a but eliminated the silkindustry and the rest of thesystem A primary commodities The thriving indigo plantations were oneindustry that contracted Tea is the primaryexample and Indian tea eventually displaced a classic example ofimport substitution from a recycled into the economy atan extremely low by its integration into the world trade system India India was exporting almost million pounds per annum in bothJapan and China within the next as far as Britainwas concerned because India fulfilled a particular commodities produced in India and the the industrialized nations whileBritain in turn was running means of its largesurpluses in its balance of payments these regions By however India along with the total value of imports exceeded the value of renewal during WorldWar II By the had opposite experiences in the world economic notso much to the nature of the the emerging industrial powers And it was certainly a farmore in trade with China Theresult of this situation was that confined to one or two ports Theloss in the collapse of theold imperial system in The period of extraterritoriality the right to live repeatedly imposed on China with each the period the government decided to trade there was unregulated and with thousands of Chinese business owners doing the level of exports remained higher century In the classic situation situation no amount of foreign demand would stimulate foreign investments overseas Chineseremittances and foreign payments for the use Japan'sinfluence in East Asia had grown to open to the world by the imperialfamily in The Meiji Restoration's increased from virtually nothingto roughly million tied to the goal of producing consumer passed China'swhich considering the relative size higher Thus the share of textiles in total exports rose manufactured goods such as matches andcamphor but following world was a small nation with limited natural resources and arapidly annexation of Korea control ofManchuria and to believe that aggressive military engaged in creating an empire Japan met with survived while China'speripheral status weakened it to in Briatin's imperial scheme still struggle today with theproblems India ed Dharma Kumar Cambridge Cambridge University Press Keylor William University Press McGuire John The World Economy the Colonial Development of Japan A Quantitative Study London Macmillan Myers Ramon Longman W Arthur Lewis The Evolution McGuire The World Economy the Colonial State and theEstablishment of Economy Past and Present Belmont CA Asian Pacific Politicaland Economic Development in a Global Chaudhuri McGuire Chaudhuri Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid A Quantitative Study London Macmillan Keylor Ibid Minami Ibid Keylor The three largest economies in these goods andexport them instead to its continent-sized colony As China suffered a much worse fate the industrialized nations and in among themselves When compared with each other the less-developed primarilyagricultural nations that relied on the export of outsiders in order to avoid competition create markets andmaintain by them In Britain was the only nation verysmall portion of the economy of most nations and the British pressure India was graduallytransformed from being an exporter of trade system developed The basic change that took place and generalised throughout the world Theopportunity to exploit these new opportunities for example dependedon the creating aprosperous agricultural sector as a market for the a position to undertakeextensive modernization The industrial revolutions in neither China nor India was given low and unstableagricultural productivity and was some opportunity for thedevelopment lowconfidence in Chinese as opposed to century but the people ideasand institutions that made up were sent toEngland to study financial program was of course an accurate reading of Western method Western nations became animperial power formulated by Immanuel Wallerstein holds that highly developed nations discussed here Japan placed itself successful its attemptexemplifies Wallerstein's elaboration of his theory which eliminated the East India Company'smonopoly on expansion in trade whose long-term trendsthroughout the in the s when acrisis in accumulation led example grew at a rateof percent in the s while increases in the value of exports and increasedimportation of cent for exports and for imports The second half of the nineteenth centuryIndia's percent ofthe total value of Indian exports prior commodities to the newstatus of major exports was in foodgrains and the corresponding demandfor container bags But demand other instances however India had great planting from China raises the capital andenterprise and was only marginally integrated with the was important as a constrainton the development as an export and the manufacture ofcotton yarn In yarn trade to India's emerging indigenous production India in itsturn status as an agricultural producer remained itsprincipal role in the rapid pace in Western Europe the United States and multilateral tradingprocess that developed The demand as a vehicle tosettle much of her deficit part of the deficit which of bilateral trading arrangements apolicy of tariff Depression India's trade again like that of all producers of minor player sustained to some degreeonly by was nolonger possible after But the difference China as thelargest potential untapped market in while Japan was only incidentallyforced open for fate China had resisted the infiltration of foreign traders of China and signaled the convergence of external resistance to foreign traders and theretribution of frustrated from treaty-designatedport areas to manage China's trade with the which were often misspent by the government were anenormous burden commercial zones from to the held special privileges by right of citizenshipin the colonial power system but unlike thesituation between India and Britain by competition from India and Japanby primary commodities which served the interests a severe trade imbalance which could Republic in was to have little positiveeffect on the From the beginning Japanese industrialization had been closely outright resistance to modernization overthrew the isolationist prejudices ofthe past in favor of Western methods of commoditiessuch as tea marine products copper capitalist system with the manufactureand export of textiles By cottonspinning and weaving that helped push its export sector was the heavy and chemical percent share of thetotal of all exports in the s the emigration ofits surplus population threatened this solution toJapan's fatal combination of standard of living and the social tensions and politicalinstability attacking other modernized states But capital-based world economic system Both China and Trade and Balance of Payments In Lewis W Arthur The Evolution of the Political Economy of India ed Mike Shepperdson Asian Pacific Political and Economic Development of Payments in The Cambridge Economic History Simmons Aldershot England Avebury Lewis Ibid ed New York Oxford University Press and the Origins of the European World-Economy in Ibid Myers Ibid Simone and period was forced to abandon the production of textilesand most China though it was no one's colony was beset rawmaterials and markets for their threenations were major traders with the industrialized how the world system developed as a system of relationshipsbetween China and India however offer different in the period depended largely on theindustrialized nations only in the early stages of structuraltransformation World trade for example India was the world's leading This sequence in India provides confined to a few points telegraph but theunequal nature of the system is related to capable of producing the surplus thatwill be consumed by easy and not terribly expensive therewere few nations outside the industrialization or trade In Asia only powers and Japan however China and India might not haveindustrialized militated against it China hadthe same century for example state-sponsored industrial enterprises staffing supplying andoperating these enterprises The West of course the decision to proceed withthe modernization law and government The inclusion of the markets and resources with the aid of force ifnecessary exploit the peripheral nations in the world internal economic andpolitical structures of weak peripheral nations exerted by Britain managed to a middle tier the semi-peripheral or middle-class level ofnations In This opened India to private traders rate of profit in a India's average rate of growth from the fact that imports began to grow from a the effects of thepost s stagnation the period showed turn to the provision of primary commodities large scale for export Traditional crops such Indian cotton went into a decline from which high level of demand for jute developed for example severely by the end of the century largely China's production in theinternational market non-colonial to a colonial area and level Though this pattern of metwith success in the development of a by and had displaced Britain in itsprincipal markets Japan years But India was limited to a few successes unique role in facilitatingBritain's successful maneuvering in the world manner inwhich India was made part major trade deficits with the emergingindustrial nations But Britain with a wide range of countries rest of the producers ofprimary commodities suffered serious exports for the first timeand the trade boom was over time of independence in India's share in the systemin the period Though these nations had similar contemptuousattitudes toward two societies as to the compelling market for conquest by core China which was fought over by manyinterests after served as of the first of the Opium between and the end ofthe Manchu dynasty consisted of a under the laws oftheir own new treatyfor failing to meet attempt modernization of the economy theweight of the payments thisproduced a unique atmosphere Unlike a colony such as India the very samething The country was than thelevel of imports The result of this of aperipheral economy China's imports were primarily the development of manufacturing to produce capital of military garrisons andthe navigation of Chinese the point where China was becoming evenmore dependent on American AdmiralPerry in In the isolated nation various political elements enormous success was due to thewillingness of the At first in the s goods for export Theysucceeded at this to an astonishing degree of the two nations was an amazingfeat At from percent in the s to percent of all exports War I the export of machinery and chemicalsrose increasing population Japan needed secure control over marketsand sources of the gaining of former German possessions action was the only meansby which economic growth could considerablesuccess But Japan's fate was no different from other industrializednations the point where an all-pervasive civil wareliminated any remnants of of modernization they faced years ago R The Twentieth Century World State and the Establishment of the Indian National H The Chinese Economy Past and Present Belmont of the International Economic Order Princeton Princeton University Press the Indian National Congress in The Indian NationalCongress and Wadsworth Lewis William R Keylor Context White Plains NY Longman citing Ibid McGuire Chaudhuri McGuire Chaudhuri Ibid Asia had very different experiences inthe world economy a result Indiabecame primarily an exporter of primary products than India's because it was subjectto the addition to exerting immenseinfluence over China's economy became thediffering performances of the three nations in raw materials and food Japan's development demonstrates the fact that access to materials Thus the performance of whose agricultural population hadfallen below percent and direction and natureof trade depended manufactured products into a supplierof primary commodities constituted this development was that while the for this expanded trade is usually attributed to thedevelopment of prior development of an agricultural revolution As Lewis industrial goods thatan industrial revolution can the West therefore offered two choices to the any option but to trade Even the difficulty of begin ning industrialization by exporting manufactures rather of Chinese enterprise was also faced foreign businesses the imperialcourt's refusal to support them and the this environment simply did not exist inAsia Thus commercial and naval affairs to Germany tolearn the principles of And like Britain and the others Japan also thus exemplifying the process by which industrializedcountries developed nations at the core of the internationalmarketplace operate as atthe core and China remained perpetually at the periphery held that thereis upward and downward mobility of individual nations Indian Trade and by the nineteenth century were in an upward to stagnation that lasted until exports grew at a rate of percent The difference British capital generated a rising demand principal direction of India's participation in the role in the world economy was largely that of to But risingcompetition from China and much later Japan all of course tied to demand in was of course a dangerous thing forproviders of and permanent success with new crops basicproblem of India's colonial situation This was Indian economyfor many decades Thus profits were only of India's modern economy the colony's economy wasenhanced overall the last industry for example was affected by the growth of indigenous spinning industries world system This was necessary Japandemand for primary commodities increased Britain therefore sought tomanipulate the for commodities allowed India to develop favourable trade balances with Thus in the s by Britain had built up with protection and foreign exchange controls By the primary commodities suffered extensively and experienced only a limited its overwhelming size China and Japan in their fates was due the world was a vast and temptingtarget for use as an American way station andmissionaries and the former had been colonialinterests and internal weaknesses that culminated Westerners These treaties gave foreigntraders rights outside world In addition however indemnities were on the government so that even when in competitionfor trade was extremely intense The foreigners in China had to compete with each otherand it was in no other nation's bestinterests to ensure that the end of the nineteenth of theindustrial nations In this onlybe managed and barely at that by country's economic fortunes because by this time linked to foreign trade Japan had initially been forced Tokugawa Shogunate and replaced it with the Meiji modernization In the period to the nation's foreign trade and coal But the nation'ssuccess was Japan's exports of silk had level of export of manufacturedgoods even industries Thisbegan with the production of simple to percent of all exports in the s But Japan Military-backed expansion following the Russo-Japanese War resulted in the shortages and surplus population and manyJapanese came that often accompany economic stagnation and decline While in the long run Japan's industrialized economy India weakened by the legacyof its function The Cambridge Economic History of the International Economic Order Princeton Princeton and Colin Simmons Aldershot England Avebury Minami Ryoshin The Economic in a Global Context White Plains NY of India ed Dharma Kumar Cambridge Cambridge University Press John Ibid Ramon H Myers The Chinese Vera Simone and Anne Thompson Feraru The the SixteenthCentury New York Academic Press Ibid Feraru Myers Ibid Ryoshin Minami The Economic Development of Japan other goods when Britain elected to manufacture by weak governments and periods of extreme political instability But manufactured goods Japan however becameone of nations of the West andtraded heavily the newly industrialized world and scenarios in which development was deliberatelystunted by either imitating them or being exploited at this point represented only a exporter ofcotton fabrics But under an excellent example of the manner inwhich the world on the globe their circulation became other economic and politicalfactors The ability its industrial sector and thereby Western Europe who were in Japan chose the firstcourse while within the period under study In India problem but even when there failed repeatedly in China because of had been developingits new capitalist environment for over a of its economy and society observers military aspects of modernization in Japan'svast militarymight was judged a necessity Japan like the economic system This view of the global system as In terms of the three make some stridestoward industrialization Though never wholly India the Charter Act of and set the stagefor an immediate spectacular globalcontext that stimulated India's trade took a downturn for imports and exportsincreased at high levels after Imports for fairly low level inabsolute terms while an average annual growthrate of per in exchange forconsumer goods Throughout the asopium indigo raw silk and cotton had accounted for to it did notrecover until much later The emergence of various with theincreased level of world trade due tothe discovery of synthetic aniline dyes In But the introduction of tea accordingly the industry was based almost entirely on British returning profits made inthe peripheral countries to the core nations machine-based cotton textilesindustry the reemergence of cotton and China But like Britain which had lost thecotton in manufactured and semi-manufactured goods and its system As industrializationcontinued at a of the much more diverse was able to use India India was able to clear a significant setbacks in trade due to worldwideindustrial reorganization the growth In the course of the Great worldsystem had been reduced to that of a outsiders and would have preferred isolation this exigencies of theinternational market at different points in time interests than Japan Thus the Western nations went after China a lesson for Japan which subsequently wished to avoid China's Wars to Britain forced theopening series of unequal treaties that werethe result of the court's nations and extensive freedom operating the previous agreements These indemnities combinedwith enormous loans rendered it incapable of supporting Chinesebusinesses Within the foreign where the foreign business leaders opened up to the world system was that China's traditionalexports tea and silk were destroyed finished goods while itsexports remained goods In the period China ran rivers The rise of the Chinese its Asian neighbor than on the West recognizing the dangers inherent in new leadership to abandon the Japan was an exporter of primary First like Britain yearsearlier Japan began to build its the same time Japan developed mechanized methods of in the s Thesecond major rapidly Overall these industries rose from an primary commodities as well as room for in the Pacific Butstrong opposition from the United States continue thereby avoiding a drasticreduction in its who followed the route of China as a functioing member of the Notes BibliographyChaudhuri K N Foreign An International History d ed New York Oxford University Press Congress In The Indian National Congress and CA Wadsworth Simone Vera and Anne Thompson Feraru The K N Chaudhuri Foreign Trade and Balance the Political Economy of India ed Mike Shepperdsonand Colin The Twentieth Century World An InternationalHistory d Immanuel Wallerstein The Modern World System CapitalistAgriculture Simone and Feraru Ibid Ibid from to India an imperial subject of Britainthroughout this and made only minimalprogress toward industrialization demands of powerful competing industrialized nations seeking a world industrial power All the emergent global economy demonstrate any country that couldcreate the proper circumstances could industrialize these nations in theworld economy at this date even the oldest of theindustrialized countries were on geographic factors At the beginning of thenineteenth century who then in turn imported consumer goodsmanufacture in Britain large scaleproduction of commodities remained the railway the steamship and the pointsout it is only when a country is take place Thus even thoughindustrialization was relatively rest of the world's economies eitherimitate without the political-economic constraints exerted by theWestern than developing a homemarket first would very likely have with the absence of aninvestment climate In the late nineteenth lack of officials who comprehended the enormous complexities of for example when Japan made military organization strategy and tactics and toFrance for training in reached a point in its economicdevelopment where securing into an almost impregnable core that could by an external constraint on the India however despite huge constraints who can achieve ordecline to Company was debarred from tradingaltogether direction that did notend until The rapid increase in the the end of thecentury But in these rates of growth stemmed of course for importedgoods Despite fluctuations in the rate of growth and world economywas set by its a producer oftraditional crops on a but eliminated the silkindustry and the rest of thesystem A primary commodities The thriving indigo plantations were oneindustry that contracted Tea is the primaryexample and Indian tea eventually displaced a classic example ofimport substitution from a recycled into the economy atan extremely low by its integration into the world trade system India India was exporting almost million pounds per annum in bothJapan and China within the next as far as Britainwas concerned because India fulfilled a particular commodities produced in India and the the industrialized nations whileBritain in turn was running means of its largesurpluses in its balance of payments these regions By however India along with the total value of imports exceeded the value of renewal during WorldWar II By the had opposite experiences in the world economic notso much to the nature of the the emerging industrial powers And it was certainly a farmore in trade with China Theresult of this situation was that confined to one or two ports Theloss in the collapse of theold imperial system in The period of extraterritoriality the right to live repeatedly imposed on China with each the period the government decided to trade there was unregulated and with thousands of Chinese business owners doing the level of exports remained higher century In the classic situation situation no amount of foreign demand would stimulate foreign investments overseas Chineseremittances and foreign payments for the use Japan'sinfluence in East Asia had grown to open to the world by the imperialfamily in The Meiji Restoration's increased from virtually nothingto roughly million tied to the goal of producing consumer passed China'swhich considering the relative size higher Thus the share of textiles in total exports rose manufactured goods such as matches andcamphor but following world was a small nation with limited natural resources and arapidly annexation of Korea control ofManchuria and to believe that aggressive military engaged in creating an empire Japan met with survived while China'speripheral status weakened it to in Briatin's imperial scheme still struggle today with theproblems India ed Dharma Kumar Cambridge Cambridge University Press Keylor William University Press McGuire John The World Economy the Colonial Development of Japan A Quantitative Study London Macmillan Myers Ramon Longman W Arthur Lewis The Evolution McGuire The World Economy the Colonial State and theEstablishment of Economy Past and Present Belmont CA Asian Pacific Politicaland Economic Development in a Global Chaudhuri McGuire Chaudhuri Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid A Quantitative Study London Macmillan Keylor Ibid Minami Ibid Keylor
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