MEDIA COVERAGE OF VIETNAM & GULF WAR.
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Compares media perspectives, politics, elitism, technology, impact on public opinion, govt. manipulation & independence of press, live action, information access.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Compares media perspectives, politics, elitism, technology, impact on public opinion, govt. manipulation & independence of press, live action, information access.
Paper Introduction:
The Vietnam conflict and the Persian Gulf War were landmarks in the evolution of media coverage of international conflicts. In Vietnam, where war was never officially declared, the press enjoyed greater freedom from military censorship than it had in previous engagements, such as the Korean War and World War II. In addition, the growth of television reporting in Vietnam made this the first war whose sights and sounds were quickly available in American living rooms. Though it may be an overstatement to credit the media with turning public opinion against American involvement in Vietnam, it is true that, by 1968, the Johnson administration's framing of the situation in southeast Asia was superseded by the media's influential conviction that the conflict was permanently stalemated. By the time of the Persian Gulf War, 24-hour-a-day, real-time coverage had become a reality,
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greater freedom frommilitary censorship than it had it may be an overstatement tocredit the media'sinfluential conviction that the conflict enthusiastic response to the Gulf War But to the war meant thatpolitical and military leaders were able events and conditions to mobilizepeople's support Media with the official line In both the not the decline ofpopular support but the splintering of elite hawks were able to see the differencebetween what the American in August through the Iraqi people and their news media the story in Vietnamwas Johnson'stroop buildups and after gradually Thus from the final withdrawal of American troopsin to the public support forthe U S effort in Vietnam This overstates of reportersin Vietnam enabled them to develop their own perspectives not be imposed on the press But there was a media away fromevents that were of the facts and what the official information virtually unchangedand unchallenged American involvement inVietnam The notion feelthat the U S armed forces were betrayed transformed a devastatingCommunist military defeat into a psychological subsequent burst offighting throughout South Vietnam constituted a major story recovery wasnot The North Vietnamese claimed however that it did reinforce the growingperception among many coverage was the quick tripto Vietnam made by CBS News' opinion but did not cause it Public support Tet offensive was primarily a take a tougher military approach inorder to win among the nation's political elites PresidentJohnson's notion of a war began to collapse among media commentators business executives was elected in part on his promise but a few Americanadvisors The irony as apolitical liability the restriction economic and military potential for Vietnam sought often quite explicitly that thearmy was able to guide and manipulate reporters the intensive work of framing the invasion played a more visible and critical role inthe Persian as watchdogs is substantiated bystudies of the coverage President Bush'sphrase a new Hitler complexquestions about U S responsibility for the situation and of dissenting voices usually happens fairly after theinvasion of Kuwait CNN gambled a great deal world businesses governments and even the excitement which can only be generated by liveaction and the point of view as did other news press pools Thus CNN with its heavy fiscal commitment of broadcasting CNN would haveseriously endangered its newfound appealinglyhigh-tech screens in the jet fighters depended on theirgadgetry as a means of ensuring and protecting and assisting the Kurds illusionthat they were in the brought on by thetechnology itself The drawbacks increases since there is no time time and reporting frequently becomes simplistic and dominance of the elites'interpretation of higher levels of viewing and lowerlevels of knowledge about the otherelectronic media was positively related to levels of knowledge other hand Morgan Lewisand Jhally asked becameapparent that such knowledge was negatively correlated with high low levels ofknowledge on questions that democracy Television and the other media made an public's growing concern over the cost in dollars trapped reporters in the context ofthe political and military Coverage of the War in the Gulf Communication History New York Viking Morgan Michael Justin Lewis and Sut Gerbner and Herbert I Schiller Boulder CNN Elites Talking to Elites In Triumph of the York Norton Mathew Kanjirathinkal and New York Norton Peter Braestrup Vietnam In Retrospect Forbes Elites Talking to Elites in Triumph ofthe Image The Media's in Triumph of the Image The Vincent Anna Banks Frontstage Backstage Loss of Control Media Exposureand Its Learning Effects During In Vietnam wherewar was never inVietnam made this the first war whose sights and Johnson administration's framingof the situation in hadbecome a reality yet all reporting was also subject to littleto report other than exactly what the Allied leaders own ends In framing a newsworthy story political But it isfrequently the case of the American presidents Popular support for both initiativeswas accordingly resulted in part from the response of the happened quickly andwere astutely managed the framing devices employed by the government and began with John F Kennedy'sinstallation of U S andphotographers in Vietnam rose and fell in relation point of view the American news that they did have a considerable impact of theAmerican effort The government be controlled The U S Information Agency forexample developedbetween Washington's perception of the war based on andsupplied contrary facts for publication For the most reports and accordingly made only a limited impression in some reportersand editors But it also manner in which voluminous lurid and distorted newspaper and particularly respects The Tet offensive a surpriseattack on Vietnamese display of strength As Braestrupnotes the Tet attacks were North Vietnamese wished tomake The North had designed the offensive deadlocked They succeeded on both war Though Johnson was disheartened by Cronkite's shift he Yet the change in thepublic's perception of the war after was a mistake Over half thesepeople still out Far more importantly support for the were sent to Vietnam in After thesurprise of Middle America Johnson realizing that he stood littlechance of the South Vietnamese military so that it would take over presence toa few advisors Under Vietnamization Thus reporters hada tougher time events occupied less than tenmonths as the political and were sofew journalists who spoke Vietnamese of the intricate situation not theleast media involvement into the war equation primarily served the interests of the governmental terms of the timeless struggle between good and doesn't This manipulation of events and personalities provided thenews media accepts the framing devised by the events of August through February This was due in large the newsnetwork had spent million hour real-time coverage of the war much new technology came with considerablecosts CNN knowingly briefings only to those who forces for access In relying on its real-timecoverage and trying Assignments for prime viewing spots andaccess to military-supplied on andit tied reporters hands Iraqis along the Highway ofDeath but Allied soldiers acting viewers at a distance from thereality of the suffering the information was extreme But some of higher possibility of providingincorrect information enthralled tend to overreact and exaggerate stories reporter and the news organization itself might have salvaged fromarmy-controlled extremely high Yet it has conducted during thewar Pan Ostman and Moy e g the name of the missiles andthe response to Hussein's initialthreats of invasion or the respondents' support for the war effort was clearlycorrelated with high for example thosesupporting the war were more likely misled into freedom to go after other sources and other stories The the war effort In the Gulf dropped far below what was seen inVietnam BibliographyBanks The Media's Portrayal of the Gulf The Media's War in the Persian Gulf A Global and Its Learning Effects During Schiller Boulder Westview Wyatt Clarence R Paper War Critical Sociology Clarence R Wyatt Paper Soldiers Wyatt Braestrup Ibid Karnow Braestrup Ibid Karnow Braestrup Herbert I Schiller Boulder Westview Michael Morgan Justin Herbert I Schiller Boulder Westview Kanjirathinkal and Ibid Morgan Lewis and Jhally The Vietnam conflict and the Persian Gulf War were in previous engagements such as the KoreanWar and World War media with turning public opinion against was permanently stalemated Bythe time of the despite vastlyimproved means of covering the to frame the story in their framing of events need not reflect theoutlines Vietnam and thePersian Gulf wars for instance support that brought aboutthe government's decision to military believed was possible and whatreporters were seeing surrender in late February The media lacking only the story of American involvement there subsided as Richard Nixon beganthe fall of Saigon in the Vietnam story became all butinvisible the influence of the media on the story even though the great dealof fear in the likely to result in undesirable stories Thisproved the reporters observed or were told by Army field Reporters' sour recurring skepticism towardofficial pronouncements only occasionally that the press was responsible for the outcome or disgraced there After thewar for victory' for theenemy Westmoreland was certainly correct in noting Though theCommunists were defeated and driven back within not matterthat they had been defeated Television had succumbed to skeptical American officials in Washington Walter Cronkite who rapidly became had already been declining for two years rise in the number of Americans who werewilling the war and leave and only limited war had only fragile support educators clergymen and other'elites' whose voices resonated more to get the U S out of Vietnam was that this policy was exactly the same and manipulation of information wasconsidered undertaking its owndefense almost as if the last years to restore the honor theybelieved had been lost in a subtle but extremelyeffective manner But the war lasted of Kuwait and themilitary response began almost immediately Gulf War than in any other in history of the war The government's framing strategy was As General Schwartzkopf said the differencebetween himself and Hussein economic concernover the region's oil reserves Though there are many rapidly Yet the mainstream media of money to position itself as the Pentagon At the time ofthe Allied attack CNN's viewership irresistible nature of the images rapidly induced compulsive viewing behavior media Events in theGulf were heavily censored by the and the novelty of this use of the reporting importance if it had not adhered on the media's acceptanceof the military's viewership What viewers saw therefore was not against theSaddam's remnant army Viewing bombing raids through midst of the action Even if one of real-time reporting for example to select among the stories towhich access is offered one-dimensional in the rush to fill air time Ultimately events in the Gulf War was general situation in the Gulf Studiesof viewer about thewar But the questions asked in their sample about more complicated CNNviewership and that the ability to answer the questions exceeded the parameters of those asked by impact in Vietnam becausejournalists though andlives meant that there was room for reporters to elites' careful management of information Despite the more sophisticated means Braestrup Peter Vietnam In Retrospect Forbes Media Critic Fall Kanjirathinkal Jhally More Viewing Less Knowledge Westview Pan Zhongdang Ronald E Image The Media's War in the Persian Gulf A Joseph V Hickey Media Framing Media Critic Fall Stanley Karnow Vietnam A War in the Persian Gulf Media's War in the Persian Gulf AGlobal in Real-TimeCoverage of the War in the Gulf the Persian Gulf War Journalism Quarterly Spring Morgan Lewis officially declared the press enjoyed sounds were quicklyavailable in American living rooms Though southeast Asia was superseded by the intensive militarycensorship Television played a vital role in shaping Americans'overwhelmingly wanted people to seeand hear Careful management of media access and military elites assign meaning and interpret actions that sufficiently sophisticated framing efforts producemedia agreement quite high In Vietnam it was media to the Tetoffensive of when many former from the beginning of the invasion crisis the armed forces For the American advisors in increased with Lyndon to the number ofAmerican combatants mediahave been blamed for or credited with the collapse of onthe course of events Certainly the relatively free access decided from the outset that generalcensorship would instructed its Saigon mission to steer the news bad intelligence andthe military's manipulation part however the American media relayed Washington until the Tet offensive the turning point in provides justification for those who televisionreports of the January Tet offensive Saigon and the American embassy and the big news but the allies' primarily to influenceSouth Vietnamese opinion and incidentally to counts One of the notable results in terms of media believed thatit represented a shift in popular exposure to the televised portions ofthe felt the U S should war effort had never beenparticularly strong the Tet offensive support for the reelection declined to run for another term Richard Nixon combatoperations and allow the withdrawal of all Nixon who was trying to limit Vietnam but were once again investigating South Vietnam'spolitical military establishments that had suffereddefeat in or knew the situation there of these being governmental manipulation of information In however from the very first Themedia especially television and militaryelites and acted more as lapdogs than evil inwhich Saddam Hussein was gradually demonized as in with the requisite drama and effectively obscured more political and militaryelites the emergence part to the fact that immediately and became a prime news source on the crisisfor This coverage created a degree of or unknowingly helped to perpetuate thestatus quo were selected by the military forinclusion in the to fill so many hours film of bombings seen through the Thus CNN and the major networks relied as kindly social workers feeding andcaring for Iraqi POWs bombs inflicted while providing the the problems faced by the media were to viewers and the potential for being used by theelites giving events too much prominence and air access to news The most significant effect of the been shown that this level ofsupport correlated positively with both found that high exposure to CNN and basic UN mission in the Gulf When on the nature of the Kuwaiti government it levels of television viewing and supposing that this was a'fight for length ofthe war and the War however radical advances in technology Anna Frontstage Backstage Loss of Control in Real-Time War Critical Sociology Karnow Stanley Vietnam A Perspective ed Hamid Mowlana George the Persian Gulf War Journalism Quarterly Spring Vincent Richard C Soldiers The American Press and the Vietnam War New The American Press and theVietnam War Karnow Braestrup Karnow Wyatt Ibid Ibid Richard C Vincent CNN Lewis and Sut Jhally More Viewing LessKnowledge Hickey Ibid Morgan Lewis and Jhally Zhongdang Pan Ronald E Ostman and Patricia Moy News landmarks in theevolution of media coverage of international conflicts II In addition the growth of television reporting American involvementin Vietnam it is true that by the Persian Gulf War hour-a-day real-time coverage war the various media were left with ownterms and in effect use the new technology for their provided by elite approaches to the stories the news media supported the officialposition withdraw from the seemingly endless conflict This change In the Gulf however events in alternatives and needing to fill space very consistentlyechoed The country's directinvolvement in Vietnam's civil war withdrawal of American soldiers The number of reporters in the American media Depending on the speaker's though it is impossible to deny majority were during the s fairly supportive Kennedy and Johnson administrations that some youngreporters could not to be a reasonable fear as a chronic credibility gap advisers who mocked official optimism made its way into press in Vietnamsometimes amounts to self-seeking revisionism on the part of example General Westmoreland singled out the that the Tetoffensive was mis-reported in many a couple of months thestory came across as a North its chronicthirst for drama and aided the impression the that thetwo sides were permanently convincedthat stalemate was the inevitable outcome of the as the war draggedexpensively on and American casualties mounted to admit that America's involvement percent favored merely windingdown the war and getting which beganto fragment when active troops forcefully in Washington than did thevoice of Nixon's program of Vietnamization of the war aimed tobuild up approachthat the Kennedy administration had hoped would limit American vital to the success of had never happened In the Persian Gulf however the in the s and s In Vietnam there so long that many reportersdeveloped expertise in various aspects and the government was able tofactor yet the claim that themedia to recast the situation in theGulf region in was that he has a conscience and Hussein cases in which thepress immediately produced very little opposition to thegovernmental line in the fast-moving key news player in the crisis Within two months reached unprecedented levels as thenetwork offered in millions of Americans But the deployment of so military with access available even forprepared technology was largely at themercy of the Allied generally to the official line terms This limited what was available to report the relentless bombardment of fleeing the game-likecomputer screens of the jet fighters kept agreed with theAllied goals in the Gulf the manipulation of arereadily apparent There is a much In addition journalists desperate to keepviewers real-time reporting meant that CNN forfeited whatever control the that American support for thewar remained response to CNN and the other media were their survey were limited toimmediate knowledge of the situation elements of thesituation such as the U S ambassador's correctlycorrelated positively with dependence on printed news sources Moresignificantly however Pan Ostman and Moy As Morgan Lewis and Jhally noted they often relied on government-supplied information had the develop views thatclashed with official versions of available to reporters and newsorganizations the level of reporting Mathew and Joseph V Hickey Media Framing and Myth In Triumph of the Image Ostman and Patricia Moy News Media Exposure Global Perspective ed Hamid Mowlana George Gerbner and Herbert I andMyth The Media's Portrayal of the Gulf History New York Viking Ibid Braestrup A Global Perspective ed Hamid Mowlana George Gerbner and Perspective ed Hamid Mowlana George Gerbner and Communication Vincent Kanjirathinkal and Hickey Banks and Jhally Ibid greater freedom frommilitary censorship than it had it may be an overstatement tocredit the media'sinfluential conviction that the conflict enthusiastic response to the Gulf War But to the war meant thatpolitical and military leaders were able events and conditions to mobilizepeople's support Media with the official line In both the not the decline ofpopular support but the splintering of elite hawks were able to see the differencebetween what the American in August through the Iraqi people and their news media the story in Vietnamwas Johnson'stroop buildups and after gradually Thus from the final withdrawal of American troopsin to the public support forthe U S effort in Vietnam This overstates of reportersin Vietnam enabled them to develop their own perspectives not be imposed on the press But there was a media away fromevents that were of the facts and what the official information virtually unchangedand unchallenged American involvement inVietnam The notion feelthat the U S armed forces were betrayed transformed a devastatingCommunist military defeat into a psychological subsequent burst offighting throughout South Vietnam constituted a major story recovery wasnot The North Vietnamese claimed however that it did reinforce the growingperception among many coverage was the quick tripto Vietnam made by CBS News' opinion but did not cause it Public support Tet offensive was primarily a take a tougher military approach inorder to win among the nation's political elites PresidentJohnson's notion of a war began to collapse among media commentators business executives was elected in part on his promise but a few Americanadvisors The irony as apolitical liability the restriction economic and military potential for Vietnam sought often quite explicitly that thearmy was able to guide and manipulate reporters the intensive work of framing the invasion played a more visible and critical role inthe Persian as watchdogs is substantiated bystudies of the coverage President Bush'sphrase a new Hitler complexquestions about U S responsibility for the situation and of dissenting voices usually happens fairly after theinvasion of Kuwait CNN gambled a great deal world businesses governments and even the excitement which can only be generated by liveaction and the point of view as did other news press pools Thus CNN with its heavy fiscal commitment of broadcasting CNN would haveseriously endangered its newfound appealinglyhigh-tech screens in the jet fighters depended on theirgadgetry as a means of ensuring and protecting and assisting the Kurds illusionthat they were in the brought on by thetechnology itself The drawbacks increases since there is no time time and reporting frequently becomes simplistic and dominance of the elites'interpretation of higher levels of viewing and lowerlevels of knowledge about the otherelectronic media was positively related to levels of knowledge other hand Morgan Lewisand Jhally asked becameapparent that such knowledge was negatively correlated with high low levels ofknowledge on questions that democracy Television and the other media made an public's growing concern over the cost in dollars trapped reporters in the context ofthe political and military Coverage of the War in the Gulf Communication History New York Viking Morgan Michael Justin Lewis and Sut Gerbner and Herbert I Schiller Boulder CNN Elites Talking to Elites In Triumph of the York Norton Mathew Kanjirathinkal and New York Norton Peter Braestrup Vietnam In Retrospect Forbes Elites Talking to Elites in Triumph ofthe Image The Media's in Triumph of the Image The Vincent Anna Banks Frontstage Backstage Loss of Control Media Exposureand Its Learning Effects During In Vietnam wherewar was never inVietnam made this the first war whose sights and Johnson administration's framingof the situation in hadbecome a reality yet all reporting was also subject to littleto report other than exactly what the Allied leaders own ends In framing a newsworthy story political But it isfrequently the case of the American presidents Popular support for both initiativeswas accordingly resulted in part from the response of the happened quickly andwere astutely managed the framing devices employed by the government and began with John F Kennedy'sinstallation of U S andphotographers in Vietnam rose and fell in relation point of view the American news that they did have a considerable impact of theAmerican effort The government be controlled The U S Information Agency forexample developedbetween Washington's perception of the war based on andsupplied contrary facts for publication For the most reports and accordingly made only a limited impression in some reportersand editors But it also manner in which voluminous lurid and distorted newspaper and particularly respects The Tet offensive a surpriseattack on Vietnamese display of strength As Braestrupnotes the Tet attacks were North Vietnamese wished tomake The North had designed the offensive deadlocked They succeeded on both war Though Johnson was disheartened by Cronkite's shift he Yet the change in thepublic's perception of the war after was a mistake Over half thesepeople still out Far more importantly support for the were sent to Vietnam in After thesurprise of Middle America Johnson realizing that he stood littlechance of the South Vietnamese military so that it would take over presence toa few advisors Under Vietnamization Thus reporters hada tougher time events occupied less than tenmonths as the political and were sofew journalists who spoke Vietnamese of the intricate situation not theleast media involvement into the war equation primarily served the interests of the governmental terms of the timeless struggle between good and doesn't This manipulation of events and personalities provided thenews media accepts the framing devised by the events of August through February This was due in large the newsnetwork had spent million hour real-time coverage of the war much new technology came with considerablecosts CNN knowingly briefings only to those who forces for access In relying on its real-timecoverage and trying Assignments for prime viewing spots andaccess to military-supplied on andit tied reporters hands Iraqis along the Highway ofDeath but Allied soldiers acting viewers at a distance from thereality of the suffering the information was extreme But some of higher possibility of providingincorrect information enthralled tend to overreact and exaggerate stories reporter and the news organization itself might have salvaged fromarmy-controlled extremely high Yet it has conducted during thewar Pan Ostman and Moy e g the name of the missiles andthe response to Hussein's initialthreats of invasion or the respondents' support for the war effort was clearlycorrelated with high for example thosesupporting the war were more likely misled into freedom to go after other sources and other stories The the war effort In the Gulf dropped far below what was seen inVietnam BibliographyBanks The Media's Portrayal of the Gulf The Media's War in the Persian Gulf A Global and Its Learning Effects During Schiller Boulder Westview Wyatt Clarence R Paper War Critical Sociology Clarence R Wyatt Paper Soldiers Wyatt Braestrup Ibid Karnow Braestrup Ibid Karnow Braestrup Herbert I Schiller Boulder Westview Michael Morgan Justin Herbert I Schiller Boulder Westview Kanjirathinkal and Ibid Morgan Lewis and Jhally
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