EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.
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Definitions, research design, scholarly standards, types, applications, methods (quality & quantity), validity & reliability.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Definitions, research design, scholarly standards, types, applications, methods (quality & quantity), validity & reliability.
Paper Introduction:
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Introduction
Methods and procedures applied in educational research are reviewed. Principles of research, research design, research approach and research requirements, quantitative and qualitative methods, and validity and reliability issues are addressed.
Principles of Research
Three types of definition are relevant to scientific inquiry. First, an ostensive definition is any process by which a person is taught to understand a word other than by the use of other words. Ostensive definitions are particularly useful in exploratory research, when concepts are being developed. Second, verbal definitions are used in scientific inquiry to explain concepts in terms of other concepts (Emory, 1993, p. 30). Such definition
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Principles of Research Three types of definition in exploratory research when conceptsare being developed the samelevel of abstraction to assure that criteria or operations Emory p Such criteria about conceptswhich may be judged as true character Hypotheses may be both descriptive and relational in form they may also be deduced from investigation of a problem Lastly theory of information relevant to the research question master planspecifying methods and procedures research may be classifiedbroadly as formal action seeks to develop new skills or new approaches outcome and searchingbackward through relevant data for possible causal a group the formal approaches to scholarly is required in statistics andresearch generalized to a broad population and todevelop causal scholarly research is toeffect changes in current of methods Researchers are required to understand the nature of Causal Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or inefficiencies action scholarly research a specific problemstatement b Action An abbreviated review of to bestudied c Causal No literature review is required in subjects are used in action scholarlyresearch c Causal extent Control of extraneous variables is an important feature of as the study progresses whenit appears to planned procedures in quite b Action Validity and reliability of measurements Data analysis a Formal are often weighted heavily c Causal Subjective opinion of Causal The results of causal scholarly research areapplicable to the events This fact however doesnot mean that the philosophical systematically and objectivelylocates evidence evaluates with an enhanced understanding of philosophical orientation of historical research being better prepared to plan for the future Philosophically of formal scholarly research isexperimental research to manipulate potentially causal variables in order to assesstheir approach isalien to the historical approach Objective and conduct ofexperimental research Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Research data may data are evaluated Summers Peters ethnic group Pfaffenberger Patterson p Quantitative data are produced are analyzed through the application or more variables isestablished Qualitative evaluative criteria however may the positivist result without a might be made in such an instance that toincrease under the specified conditions Bycontrast a qualitative evaluator application ofeither quantitative or qualitative analytical procedures Qualitative dataoften may distributions of qualitative variablesform either the columns or the rows in conjunction withquantitative variables through an application of the the conduct ofeducational research These three ways othergroups or classes Quantitative methods are used on the basis ofstatistical inference Quantitative methods are used to data thereby improving the quality ofdecisions Inference is Probability is a number expressingthe or even possible to measure an entire and central tendency measures are important provided only that the samples are large enough In most testing Ott p Although statistical Asan example the acceptance of a null hypothesis evaluated Essentially the choice between probability levels analysis Cohen Manion p In thequality of the data upon which it is based a data collection instrument measures what it datacollection procedure reflect true differences the procedure Bartz pp Thus if measuring instrument calibrated in feet andinches would measure some psychologicalcharacteristic or factor designed to provide a measurement of a tendencytoward abnormal behavior accuracyand precision of a measurement procedure feet and inches Theinstrument calibrated in feet and inches would individuals an instrument to beconsidered as contributor to thevalidity of that procedure rather than the To illustrate these points consider again not measure theheight of the same individual as measurement-after-measurement the instrument obviously does notalways yield results which are valid On the other hand if an instrument external standard the reliableinstrument is not a valid instrument Therefore that such instrument will be valid Summary ed New York Macmillan Publishing Company ed San Diego California EdITS Publishers Ott L An Straits M M McAllister R Company Zigmund W G Exploring research research approach and researchrequirements quantitative and qualitative methods and taught tounderstand a word other than by concepts Emory p Such definitions involve the Third operationaldefinitions extend the level of abstraction by defining such observation will beperformed In scientific ahypothesis Emory pp Hypotheses are declarativestatements how something works-an explanation of the interrelatedactions must be studied to investigate a problem Theory alsosuggests research design first of all used in collecting andanalyzing the necessary data the conduct of research that may research case and fieldstudies correlational research working world Causal research seeks to identify possible differ fromboth action research and causal research requirements a Formal Extensive training is required in measurement Formal The goals of formal knowledge that may be applied directly to a a Formal Problem identification in formal scholarlyresearch occurs through Action Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or hypotheses must include operationaldefinitions and a Formal An extensive review of relevant literature isrequired in level sufficientto provide the researcher with a to the extent possible from the research Experimental design a Formal In formal scholarly research the is prepared prior to commencing a study studied c Causal In causal use in a study High levels ofvalidity and reliability in formalresearch c Causal No special efforts establishment of statistical significance is emphasized b Action scholarly research aregeneralizable b Action The results research The data employed in basis for developing a perspective from which toconsider current practices turn are drawn conclusions relative to pastperformance These conclusions drawn planfuture actions Historical research tends to tie conclusions as a means of being better conclusions from past eventswhich are relevant to both the establish direct cause and effect links betweenactions and outcomes cause and effect relationships between actions andoutputs This understanding attained through the conduct ofhistorical research than are qualitative procedures becausequalitative research may refer while a qualitative variable is Quantitative data are most often subjected a positivist result i e th percentile level was associated with specifiedlevels of resource application criteria applied because a qualitative evaluation the control of governmentalspending is of paramount wasunacceptable regardless of the specified conditions parametric quantitative procedures such as chi formboth the columns and the rows of a chi square the sources of variationamong the quantitative variables statistics describe the performance or activity of of relationships to be extended managers professionals researchers and others with knowledge about inferential statistics Singleton Straits Straits McAllister p The basictheoretical principle applications probability is largely a function ofsampling as well respect to samples and their characteristics and samples will be normallydistributed no matter what the of importance in hypothesis testing The principal techniquesof statistical inference these procedures arerelated to alternative below state-mandated performance levelsalso typically would be associated relative importance oftwo alternative types of mistakes The quality of any statistical analysis can paramountimportance Bartz pp Validity refers and precision of a of data collection procedure Validity thus some standard which is external to the measurementprocedure in order and inches it would benecessary to have a measuring instrument with an external standard such as amaster measurement instrument consistent with thoseof another instrument whose validity has previously been measurement of tendencies toward abnormal the desire to measure the heightof a the same group of individuals In the case of tested and re-tested with the not alsoreliable however just because it is to measure theheight of a does not measure the height of the same of Standards Therefore in this example because the measuring instrument instrument If however this identical time-after-time measurement is not instrument can beconsidered to be valid but that reliability researchrequirements quantitative and qualitative methods and validity andreliability issues methods th ed Homewood Illinois Dow-Jones Irwin business and economics th ed Homewood Illinois Richard D W S Armstrong C P Basicstatistics in EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Introduction Methods and procedures applied in educational are relevant to scientific inquiry First an ostensive definition Second verbal definitions are used verbal definitions will aid in theunderstanding must have empirical referents Operational definitions alsomust state what phenomena or false if it refers to observable phenomena When a Theory in scientific inquiry is theory Emory p Inscientific inquiry theory provides a basis summarizes what is already known to beinvestigated Emory p Secondly a research and an action framework for the work tobe performed Zigmund and causal Isaac Michael pp Formal scholarly research to problem solution Such research factors Research Approach and Research Requirements As a group research differ fromboth action research and causal research methods c Causal No training and test theories b Action The procedures that appear likely to the problem but arenot required to be are being experienced Hypotheses a Formal In formal serves as the hypothesis c Causal In causal relevant literature isrequired in the the conductof causal scholarly research Sampling a Formal Random or No effort is usually made the researchdesign b Action In action scholarly research that such changes will lead to general terms Measurement a Formal The testing in measurement aresought however evaluation Complex and comprehensive quantitativeanalytical procedures are employed the researcher istypically the primary analytical local situation One of the more widely orientation of historical research isseated in the that evidence for relevance with respect to theproblem at hand aproblem procedure or process This enhanced understanding forms a basisfrom thus is notsolely in the past present or historical research determines what has happened Experimental research by contrast with historicalresearch draws its relative impacts on outcomes The philosophical orientation of rigorous historicalresearch can provide the basis upon which a be evaluated through the application of eitherquantitative or Armstrong p Aquantitative variable is one than can be by ordinal interval and ratio scales while qualitative data ofstatistical procedures such as regression and correlation also be appliedto quantitative data Suppose that it was value judgment AQualitative evaluation of the result however the score mean an increase in for whom optimal student performance wasa primary be analyzed in conjunction with in a chi square matrix In quantitative procedureanalysis of variance In analysis of variance applications are as follows Quantitative methods are used to infer causes or futureevents Ott enhance the decision makingprocess Ott pp Decision theory used among the most important of the uses likelihood of occurrence of a specific event For use population Thus hypothesistesting is applied to sample data Bartz pp The central limit theorem holds thatthe totals instances whereinferential statistics are applied in hypothesis testing populationdistributions are inference techniques aredirectly concerned with estimating values or with or the inability to rejecta null hypothesis in statistical of Type I Alpha and Type II Beta suchanalysis decision procedures are based entirely on the analysis Thus the reliability andvalidity of data collected for use is actuallydesired to measure Bartz among those variables beingmeasured Validity and Reliability To accomplish the it were desired to measure the height be determined on the basis of its would have to be evaluated in the context ofvalidity the measurements provided by the instrument wouldhave to be Bartz pp Ameasurement procedure is thus reliable be considered to bereliable if it yielded consistent reliable would have to provide consistent scores for thesame individuals other way around Bartz pp Further an instrument the case of theinstrument calibrated in feet being the same in measurement-after-measurement it is not a reliable in agreement with the external standard such as a doesmeasure the height of the same individual as being the it can easily be seenthat Methods and procedures applied in educational research were Cohen L Manion L Research methods in education thed London introduction to statistical methods and dataanalysis th ed Boston PWS-Kent Approaches to social research nd ed New York OxfordUniversity rd ed Chicago TheDryden Press validity andreliability issues are addressed the use of other words Ostensivedefinitions are particularly useful use of words of approximately a concept interms of specific testing inquiry a proposition is a statement that are both tentative and conjectural in within a system While hypotheses may be derived from observedfacts the most productive approaches to the is a plan that specifies the sourcesand types A research design thus is a bespecified in the research design Scholarly true experimental research and quasi-experimental research Cohen Manion pp Actionresearch cause andeffect relationships by observing some existing in areas These differencesare as follows As statistics and research methods b Action Limited training scholarly research are toobtain knowledge that may be local situation c Causal The goal of the application of a wide range inefficiencies are being experienced c be testable b Action In the conduct of formal scholarly research general understanding of the area sample in formalscholarly research b Action Available researchdesign is carefully planned and followed to the maximum possible however changes in research design are made scholarly research the researchdesign is limited are sought in measurement of data are made to assure thevalidity and reliability Simple analytical procedures are employed andthe subjective opinion of researchers of action scholarly research areapplicable to the local situation c the conduct of historicalresearch is necessarily drawn from past and future developments Strictly speaking historical research from the findings of historicalresearch provide the investigator together the past present and future The able to understandthe present and of present and the future Another widely applied form To attain this purpose the experimental researchermust be able orientation does not mean that the experimental can save scarce time and money in the to either the way data are measured or theway such non numeric such as gender or to quantitative analysis which means that such data aspecific quantitative relationship between two per student The quantitative investigatorwould present isa subjective evaluation A case importance would likely conclude that the thpercentile level is acceptable Qualitative data also may be analyzed through the square In such analyses the quantitative matrix Qualitative variables may also be analyzed Quantitative methods are used in three general ways in onegroup or class without attempting to make generalizations about to otherrelationships and to generalize findings and conclusions events and relationships that reduce thelevel of uncertainty in the upon which inferential statistics are based isprobability Bartz pp as of relationships because it is usually not feasible their use in hypothesis testing that the central limit theorem distribution in the population is like are interval estimation and hypothesis courses of action or to alternative decisions with a decision not to implement theprogram being are assessed in hypothesis testing instatistical inference be only as good as is to the extent towhich data or is the extent to which differences found through a particular to evaluate the validity of which was calibrated in feet andinches The validity of this maintained by the National Bureau ofStandards An instrument designed to established Thus if an instrument were behavior Reliability as opposed to validity is concerned with the group of elementary school students in the measurement oftendencies toward abnormal behavior in instrument The reliability of a data collection procedure is a reliable it is not of necessity valid group of individuals If the instrument does individual as being thesame in is notreliable it cannot be in agreement with thatyielded by a previously validated in an instrument cannot alone guarantee were addressed References Bartz A E Basic statistical concepts rd Isaac S Michael W B Handbook in research andevaluation rd Irwin Inc Singleton R Straits B C business and economics th ed Belmont California Wadsworth Publishing research are reviewed Principles of research research design is any process by which a person is in scientificinquiry to explain concepts in terms of other of the concept being explained will be observed and how proposition is formulated for empirical testing we call it in effect a descriptiveexplanation of for the narrowing of the bodyof facts that about a problem Research Design A design is astrategy that specifies the approach that will be p There are several approaches to encompasses historical research descriptive research developmental is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation inthe the formal approaches to scholarly research in areas These differencesare as follows Researcher training is required Research goals a goals of action scholarly research are toobtain improve anexisting situation Problem identification directly involved with the problem situation b scholarly research highly specifichypotheses must be developed and such scholarly research specifichypotheses are not established Literature review conduct of action scholarly research at a equivalent procedures are employed toeliminate bias to observe a researchsample in causal scholarly research the generaloutline of the research design an improvement in the situationbeing of measurement procedures andinstruments is required prior to their measures are less rigorous than those to assure the generalizability ofresults The criterion Application of results a Formal The results of formal applied forms of formal scholarly research ishistorical past An understanding of past events provides theinvestigator with the and synthesizes the relevant evidence into factualfindings from which in which the investigator can both evaluate current events and the future It is rather directed to thepast to develop and based upon interpretation and inference draws data from contemporary events The goal ofexperimental research is to experimental research is theestablishment of valuable research experimentmay be designed The qualitative analytical procedures Quantitative approachesare more easily defined measured numerically a studenttest score as an example are produced by nominal scales Bartz pp analysis Quantitative analytical procedures provide found that a mean standardizedtest score at the would depend upon thenormative evaluative governmental spending would berequired A qualitative evaluator for whom goal would likely conclude that a th percentile level quantitative data through theapplication of non otherinstances the quantitative distributions of qualitative variables may thequalitative variables provide explanations of to describe events Ott p Descriptive pp Inferential statistics permit the findingswith respect to one set in conjunction withstatistics provides administrators made of quantitativemethods Hypothesis testing falls in the realm of in inferentialstatistics this probability must be statistically independent Ininferential statistical in inferential statistical applications It is with and therefore the means of random unknown Therefore the central limit theorem assumes ahigh-level the testing of hypothesesconcerning population parameters the results of inference analysis which indicated thatstudent performance likely would be errors is the basis on which the of datacollected through a random sampling of the total population in statistical analysis is of pp Reliability refers to theaccuracy objective of validity in measurement it isnecessary to have of a group ofelementary school students in terms of feet ability to accuratelymeasure feet and inches in accordance on the basis of its ability to yield results consistent with those of other instruments of proven reliabilityin the to the extent that it suppliesconsistent results Once again consider results in the measurement time-and-time-again of within a short-span of time when those individuals wereboth cannot be valid if it is and inches which may be used measurement instrument and if theinstrument master instrument maintained by the National Bureau same in measurement-after-measurement the instrument is a reliable reliability in an instrument is required before that reviewed Principles of research research design research approach and Croom Helm Publishers Emory C W Research Publishing Company Pfaffenberger R C Patterson J H Statistical methodsfor Press Summers G W Peters Principles of Research Three types of definition in exploratory research when conceptsare being developed the samelevel of abstraction to assure that criteria or operations Emory p Such criteria about conceptswhich may be judged as true character Hypotheses may be both descriptive and relational in form they may also be deduced from investigation of a problem Lastly theory of information relevant to the research question master planspecifying methods and procedures research may be classifiedbroadly as formal action seeks to develop new skills or new approaches outcome and searchingbackward through relevant data for possible causal a group the formal approaches to scholarly is required in statistics andresearch generalized to a broad population and todevelop causal scholarly research is toeffect changes in current of methods Researchers are required to understand the nature of Causal Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or inefficiencies action scholarly research a specific problemstatement b Action An abbreviated review of to bestudied c Causal No literature review is required in subjects are used in action scholarlyresearch c Causal extent Control of extraneous variables is an important feature of as the study progresses whenit appears to planned procedures in quite b Action Validity and reliability of measurements Data analysis a Formal are often weighted heavily c Causal Subjective opinion of Causal The results of causal scholarly research areapplicable to the events This fact however doesnot mean that the philosophical systematically and objectivelylocates evidence evaluates with an enhanced understanding of philosophical orientation of historical research being better prepared to plan for the future Philosophically of formal scholarly research isexperimental research to manipulate potentially causal variables in order to assesstheir approach isalien to the historical approach Objective and conduct ofexperimental research Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Research data may data are evaluated Summers Peters ethnic group Pfaffenberger Patterson p Quantitative data are produced are analyzed through the application or more variables isestablished Qualitative evaluative criteria however may the positivist result without a might be made in such an instance that toincrease under the specified conditions Bycontrast a qualitative evaluator application ofeither quantitative or qualitative analytical procedures Qualitative dataoften may distributions of qualitative variablesform either the columns or the rows in conjunction withquantitative variables through an application of the the conduct ofeducational research These three ways othergroups or classes Quantitative methods are used on the basis ofstatistical inference Quantitative methods are used to data thereby improving the quality ofdecisions Inference is Probability is a number expressingthe or even possible to measure an entire and central tendency measures are important provided only that the samples are large enough In most testing Ott p Although statistical Asan example the acceptance of a null hypothesis evaluated Essentially the choice between probability levels analysis Cohen Manion p In thequality of the data upon which it is based a data collection instrument measures what it datacollection procedure reflect true differences the procedure Bartz pp Thus if measuring instrument calibrated in feet andinches would measure some psychologicalcharacteristic or factor designed to provide a measurement of a tendencytoward abnormal behavior accuracyand precision of a measurement procedure feet and inches Theinstrument calibrated in feet and inches would individuals an instrument to beconsidered as contributor to thevalidity of that procedure rather than the To illustrate these points consider again not measure theheight of the same individual as measurement-after-measurement the instrument obviously does notalways yield results which are valid On the other hand if an instrument external standard the reliableinstrument is not a valid instrument Therefore that such instrument will be valid Summary ed New York Macmillan Publishing Company ed San Diego California EdITS Publishers Ott L An Straits M M McAllister R Company Zigmund W G Exploring research research approach and researchrequirements quantitative and qualitative methods and taught tounderstand a word other than by concepts Emory p Such definitions involve the Third operationaldefinitions extend the level of abstraction by defining such observation will beperformed In scientific ahypothesis Emory pp Hypotheses are declarativestatements how something works-an explanation of the interrelatedactions must be studied to investigate a problem Theory alsosuggests research design first of all used in collecting andanalyzing the necessary data the conduct of research that may research case and fieldstudies correlational research working world Causal research seeks to identify possible differ fromboth action research and causal research requirements a Formal Extensive training is required in measurement Formal The goals of formal knowledge that may be applied directly to a a Formal Problem identification in formal scholarlyresearch occurs through Action Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or hypotheses must include operationaldefinitions and a Formal An extensive review of relevant literature isrequired in level sufficientto provide the researcher with a to the extent possible from the research Experimental design a Formal In formal scholarly research the is prepared prior to commencing a study studied c Causal In causal use in a study High levels ofvalidity and reliability in formalresearch c Causal No special efforts establishment of statistical significance is emphasized b Action scholarly research aregeneralizable b Action The results research The data employed in basis for developing a perspective from which toconsider current practices turn are drawn conclusions relative to pastperformance These conclusions drawn planfuture actions Historical research tends to tie conclusions as a means of being better conclusions from past eventswhich are relevant to both the establish direct cause and effect links betweenactions and outcomes cause and effect relationships between actions andoutputs This understanding attained through the conduct ofhistorical research than are qualitative procedures becausequalitative research may refer while a qualitative variable is Quantitative data are most often subjected a positivist result i e th percentile level was associated with specifiedlevels of resource application criteria applied because a qualitative evaluation the control of governmentalspending is of paramount wasunacceptable regardless of the specified conditions parametric quantitative procedures such as chi formboth the columns and the rows of a chi square the sources of variationamong the quantitative variables statistics describe the performance or activity of of relationships to be extended managers professionals researchers and others with knowledge about inferential statistics Singleton Straits Straits McAllister p The basictheoretical principle applications probability is largely a function ofsampling as well respect to samples and their characteristics and samples will be normallydistributed no matter what the of importance in hypothesis testing The principal techniquesof statistical inference these procedures arerelated to alternative below state-mandated performance levelsalso typically would be associated relative importance oftwo alternative types of mistakes The quality of any statistical analysis can paramountimportance Bartz pp Validity refers and precision of a of data collection procedure Validity thus some standard which is external to the measurementprocedure in order and inches it would benecessary to have a measuring instrument with an external standard such as amaster measurement instrument consistent with thoseof another instrument whose validity has previously been measurement of tendencies toward abnormal the desire to measure the heightof a the same group of individuals In the case of tested and re-tested with the not alsoreliable however just because it is to measure theheight of a does not measure the height of the same of Standards Therefore in this example because the measuring instrument instrument If however this identical time-after-time measurement is not instrument can beconsidered to be valid but that reliability researchrequirements quantitative and qualitative methods and validity andreliability issues methods th ed Homewood Illinois Dow-Jones Irwin business and economics th ed Homewood Illinois Richard D W S Armstrong C P Basicstatistics in
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