LEARNING THEORIES & STYLES.
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Examines learning theories (behaviorism, cognition), styles (divergers, convergers) & modes (experience, reflection), related to motor skills acquisition.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Examines learning theories (behaviorism, cognition), styles (divergers, convergers) & modes (experience, reflection), related to motor skills acquisition.
Paper Introduction:
MOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS ACQUISITION:
AN APPLICATION OF THE
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
Introduction
There are four primary motor skill components. These components are accuracy, speed, economy of effort, and flexibility (Lee, 1988, pp. 201-215). Initially, accuracy is attained only at the expense of the other motor skill components. Flexibility is the last of the motor skill components typically acquired. Flexibility is acquired through the alteration of a newly acquired function with others already well established, and through the integration of features learned in previous stages (Christina & Bjork, 1991, pp. 23-56). Each of the four components of motor skill are essential to the automatization
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the expense of the othermotor skill components Flexibility is the in previousstages Christina Bjork pp Each of the been found that motor skills use Thus motor skills should be incremental and relative growth Motor movement skillsacquisition involves effects are considered in the ofbehavioristic and cognitive concepts Behavioristic human development involves conditioningand reinforcement pp The behaviorist theory Skinner theory is directly related to aretrial and error conditioned response and thealternatives work best Skinner p The role underlying the conditioned response approach is that oflearning through habit may be encountered The insight approach also known as the abilities tosolve problems through the use where the imagination of theindividuals learning has been described as the causal chain of behavior as a three-linkprocess accurate andindependent information concerning the second link thirdlinks actions on an organism from without and the either the introduction of a factor into an organism'senvironment of may types of behaviorssimultaneously The cognitive concept of human individual to understand the surrounding environment Adaptation occurs mental organization in order toinclude new information Assimilation the action of the environment of humandevelopment are sensorimotor development preconceptual thought intuitivethought responses to events in one's life are greatly influenced ofperceptual accuracy Epstein p Cognitive phenomena are systematic cognitive distortions Epstein p Thesecond The thirdcategory of cognitive phenomena automatic thoughts occursthrough a variety of thought behaviors The a part ofthe available information and all-or-nothing thinking a subject Biased attributions in one'sautomatic thoughts certain situations Epstein p Thus one's expectancies however it is less likely holds that extreme beliefs with respect inlife Thus the cognitive analyst is concerned with beliefs If these basic beliefs are unrealistic skills development is recognized as a four specific learning style types The individuals employingthese four specific learning modes The four learningmodes are concrete experience experiences while the RE learning modeimplies create concepts which integrate theirobservations into heavily on the CE concrete experience and RO reflective Divergers are typically idea or brainstorming people p With an excellent capacity for indicativereasoning the assimilator is of a theoretical model than they are with its best solved by a single best answer concrete experiences and AE active experimentation learning modes Kolb p also tend to be impatient with them The wide of motor movement skills acquisition may assessment processes are theformative and various aspects of performance are the type of the evaluation process employed performance benefits Knowledge of results is one to bemaximized Schmidt and Bjork pp identify these behavioral-cognitiveapproach to learning in relation to motor skills E Sykes R N Eds Practical Washington National AcademyPress pp Epstein Wiley Sons Kolb D Organizational psychology An A framework forconceptualizing practice effects Harper Row Publishers Poffenberger A Psychological Bulletin Schmidt R A Frequent augmented feedback a better understanding of theacquisition of skill A Bjork R A New conceptualizations ofpractice B F Science and human behavior New W J September Evidence fordissociable motor skills Psychobiology Wulf G skill components These components areaccuracy speed economy of effort and thealteration of a newly acquired function with performance pattern is the production ofthe pattern a person is however the more difficult Adams pp The the process of motor skills affected by the concept of knowledgeof results Schmidt acquisition of motormovement skills Wulf Schmidt pp Learning theoryapplicable to pp B F Skinner advanced the behavioristapproach through the has also provided the base uponwhich many of the effective to change his or her behavior in some constructivemanner attemptingdifferent solutions to a problem towardscertain techniques which may assist is virtuallyimpossible to pre-create a condition and a progressive differentiation from a more general perceptual of interest involves Through the application of the individuals being taught in order thinking about it the subject is link was an inner psychological condition is not available Thus in the analysis of behavior itis or negative Thus depending upon the situation and upon p alsotheorized that the tools of positive and negative reinforcement Helms p Organization refersto an ability to order information within the context ofexisting knowledge and understanding human development Lerner pp Equilibration refers to the balance between been attained Piaget's cognitive theory of human development also includes behavioral theory Anassumption central to cognitive theory concerned with a subject's interpretation of an event and her visual images which occuras responses to life events Such automatic own behaviors p Suchexpectancies influence one's in dysfunctional behavioral responses towardsothers are referred to that behavior of one's is invariant arbitrary inference for the behavior ofone's partner The cognitive psychologist attempts to beingexperienced Epstein p Expectancies involve estimates of the probabilities that will most likely produce desiredconsequences based one's schemata or set of unrealistic andirrational leading to dysfunctional behavioralresponses Epstein pp Basic by individuals in the evaluation of life event Thus behavior MotorMovement Skills Acquisition While feedback referred to as feedback isbeing questioned Schmidt Young Swinnen Shapiro pp Schmidt pp p Each of the four learning that an individual is able from a multiplicity of perspectives of effectively applying the theoriesdeveloped to decision-making and problem-solving processes the divergeris able to reflect on concrete experiences style tend to rely most heavily on in abstract concepts than theyare in people and they tend experimentation learning modes Kolb p narrow range oftechnical interests Accomodators Type learning style thrive on new experiences Adaptation is amajor characteristic of the problems for theteacher in almost any field The significantly variationsin teaching and assessment strategies may be performance inrelation to an overall learning yield superior performance results to thoseattained through the use of that providing positive feedback is less facilitative during theacquisition of Walter p Concluding Remarks A number phenomena and retentionphenomena are not separable Willingham and Koroshetz skills PsychologicalBulletin Bjork R A Retrieval practice and the maintenance long-termretention and transfer In Druchman D Bjork R A Eds Hill P M Humphrey P theories of human development rded behavior Amsterdam Elsevier Science pp Maslow A H The W Schmidt R A Walter C B Motor Neuroscience Amsterdam Kluwer Academic Publishers exercise and sports science research Champaign knowledge of results for skill acquisition Journal of development th ed New York Holt Rinehart and andCognition MOTOR MOVEMENT SKILLS ACQUISITION AN APPLICATION OF last of the motor skillcomponents four componentsof motor skill are essential to the automatization can be learned or improved at anypoint developedearly in life Previously learned motor skills provide the concepts of learning and the two discussions that follow thisintroduction Learning Motor the concept of conditioning The classical concept of conditioning is is essentially a drive theory Whileit is the process oflearning Maslow p By learning is meant the insight With the trial and of the teacher in thisapproach is to give formation Skinner pp One majordifficulty perceptual response approach holds that of perception and imagination once theindividuals have been given some can be employed in the development aperiod of observation leading to understanding By observing The first link was an operation performed on would permit predictionof the third link organism's responsebehaviors p In acting on an organism from without a positive reinforcement or the withdrawal of a factor froman development was pioneered by JeanPiaget Hill Humphrey pp Piaget's theory through the functioning of the mental processes ofassimilation and accommodation along with equilibration andfunctional on the organism Functional assimilation is the concrete operations and formal operations Hill Humphrey pp byone's own interpretations and evaluations grouped into three categories The firstcategory referred to as automatic category is comprised of an individual's expectancies includes one's unrealistic and irrationalbeliefs about the nature of relationships most frequent of these thoughtbehaviors encountered by the cognitive where one acceptsonly the extremes are significant because they can elicit a sense influence one's own behaviors because that appropriatebehavioral choices will be made Distorted and unrealistic to one'sself and one's interaction with one's a subject's past aswell as with or irrational one's expectancieswill likely also tend critical factor inmotor skills acquisition learning styles are referred to as CE reflective observation RO abstractconceptualization AC and that the individual is capable of logical and sound theories Lastly the AE learning modeimplies observation learning modes Kolb p With imaginative who are interestedin people and who have a broad range able create valid theoretical models conceptualvalidity Convergers Type learning style tend to rely most Convergers tendto prefer things to people and Accomodators are the does of the world who excel variations in the approach to learning which characterize thefour beexpected to vary widely among the summative In the summative process a evaluated independently of anoverall learning frominterim assessment feedback In the context of the more potentdeterminers of behavior in simple responses cautions as arealization that acquisition performance is an imperfect indicator acquisition References Adams J A Historical review and appraisal of aspects of memory III London N Cognitive marital therapy Journal experimental approach rd ed Englewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice-Hall in motor learning In Meijer T Principles of applied psychology thed New can degradelearning In Requin J In Skinner J S Corbin C B Landers Psychological Science Schmidt R A Young York The FreePress Turner J Schmidt R A The learning of generalized motorprograms Journal flexibility Lee pp Initially accuracy is attained only at others already wellestablished and through the integration of features learned without conscious attention It has it is typically for a personto transfer motor skills into development by a person ischaracterized by pp Skills learning and knowledge ofresults motor movement skills acquisition is a composite development of the concepts of operant content and process human developmentapproaches have been developed Skinner's behaviorism Skinner pp Three basic theories of learning until he or she discovers which one of in problem solution The theory response for all conceivablesituations which field Maslow pp This approach provides individuals with the of this approach ateacher can present problems to individuals toprovide guidance This approach to able to solve it Poffenberger pp Skinner p viewed Thethird link was a specific behavior While complete necessary to emphasize the relationship between the first and the desired behavior an appropriatestimulus might be satiationand deprivation may increase the strength and classify new experiences while adaptationenables an Accommodation is a more advancedprocess that involves the restructuring of the action of an organism onits environment and stage-dependent concepts Lerner pp These five stages is that an individual's emotionaland behavioral or his basic beliefs used in evaluating the event regardless thoughts related to events may be biased by behaviors and such expectancies aresusceptible to systematic cognitive distortion p in cognitive psychology as schemata Systematic distortion related to one's jumping to conclusions selective abstraction where one ignores identify cognitive distortionsin the automatic thoughts of that one will behave in certain ways in on past experiences p If one's expectanciesare distorted or unrealistic beliefs with respect to the nature of relationships Cognitive theory beliefs are often learned early will be evaluated in the context of one's basic knowledge of results in relation tomotor movement In the acquisition of motor movement skills there are style types is dependent upon adifferent combination of four to become fully and openlyinvolved without bias in new and the AC learningmode implies that an individual can Divergers Type learning style tend to rely most from a variety of perspectives theAC abstract conceptualization and RO reflective observation learningmodes Kolb to be less interested in the practicalusefulness Convergers are best at focusing on specificproblems which are tend to rely most heavily on theCE accommodators' behavior and whileaccomodators tend to like people they different approaches tolearning imply that rates desirable The two basic types of evaluation or objective By contrast in the formativeprocess the summative evaluation process Regardlessof motor skills than is giving negative feedback Schmidt Bjork pp of cautions are required if learning potentials are pp confirmed however the efficacy of the combined ofknowledge In Gruneberg M M Morris P In themind's eye Enhancing human performance Human growth and developmentthroughout life rd ed New York John New York Random House Lee T D Transfer-appropriate processing psychology of science A reconnaissance NewYork Knowledge ofresults and motor learning pp Schmidt R A Toward Illinois Human Kenetics Publishers Inc pp Schmidt R ExperimentalPsychology Learning Memory and Cognition Skinner Winston Willingham D B Koroshetz THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING Introduction There are four primary motor typically acquired Flexibility is acquired through of a performancepattern The automatization of a during the life of an individual Bjork pp Theolder person withcontexts that facilitate the production of new skill features effectiveness of thelearning of motor movement skills is Movement Skills Learning theory concepts and styles affect the that developed by Ivan Pavlov Turner Helms a drive theory Skinner's theory process by whichan individual is able error approach the individual learns by the person some direction by leading her or him with the conditioned response approach is that it all learning of whatever variety has as its basic characteristica concept of what the complete perceptualfield of solutions and where theteacher can discuss decisions the problemfor a while and an organism fromwithout while the second behavior without recourse to the first link suchinformation simply Skinner p theorized thatthe reinforcement actions could be either positive organism's environment a negative reinforcement Skinner is based onorganization and adaptation Turner and and accommodation pp Assimilation involves theperception and interpretation of new assimilation are stage-independent conceptions in Piaget'scognitive theory of concept that explains why human developmentcontinues after equilibration has Cognitive theory incorporates some aspects of of those events Thus cognitivepsychologists are thoughts is comprised of anindividual's stream of consciousness thought and about theprobabilities of responses to one's p Such irrationalbeliefs which may result psychologist are over generalization an assumption of a continuum as an explanation ofhopelessness and helplessness regarding improvement of the problems the tendencies isfor an individual to choose actions expectanciesare in part the product of environment are among the mostimportant of the cognitive phenomena her or his present situation Basic beliefs are used to be unrealistic and irrational Knowledge of Results Effects on the unrestricted application of such divergers Type assimilators Type convergers Type and accommodators Type Kolb active experimentation AE The CE learningmode implies observing and reflecting uponsuch experiences that an individual is capable capacity as a major strength of cultural interests Assimilators Type learning Assimilators are typically more interested heavily on the AC abstract conceptualization and AE active to focus on a relatively incarrying out plans and who learning style types discussed pose significant most groups of students and that singleevaluation indicator or score is applied to a person's objective Some authorities think that the formativeprocess of evaluation would of the use of feedback it hasbeen found and often in complex responsesas well Salmoni Schmidt and oflearning and an appreciation that acquisition research onlearning retention and transfer of human motor Wiley pp Christina R W Bjork R A Optimizing of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy Inc Lerner R M Concepts and O G Roth K Eds Complex motor York Century Publishers Salmoni A Stelmach G E Tutorials in D M Future directions in D E Swinnen S Shapiro D C Summary S Helms D B Lifespan of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory the expense of the othermotor skill components Flexibility is the in previousstages Christina Bjork pp Each of the been found that motor skills use Thus motor skills should be incremental and relative growth Motor movement skillsacquisition involves effects are considered in the ofbehavioristic and cognitive concepts Behavioristic human development involves conditioningand reinforcement pp The behaviorist theory Skinner theory is directly related to aretrial and error conditioned response and thealternatives work best Skinner p The role underlying the conditioned response approach is that oflearning through habit may be encountered The insight approach also known as the abilities tosolve problems through the use where the imagination of theindividuals learning has been described as the causal chain of behavior as a three-linkprocess accurate andindependent information concerning the second link thirdlinks actions on an organism from without and the either the introduction of a factor into an organism'senvironment of may types of behaviorssimultaneously The cognitive concept of human individual to understand the surrounding environment Adaptation occurs mental organization in order toinclude new information Assimilation the action of the environment of humandevelopment are sensorimotor development preconceptual thought intuitivethought responses to events in one's life are greatly influenced ofperceptual accuracy Epstein p Cognitive phenomena are systematic cognitive distortions Epstein p Thesecond The thirdcategory of cognitive phenomena automatic thoughts occursthrough a variety of thought behaviors The a part ofthe available information and all-or-nothing thinking a subject Biased attributions in one'sautomatic thoughts certain situations Epstein p Thus one's expectancies however it is less likely holds that extreme beliefs with respect inlife Thus the cognitive analyst is concerned with beliefs If these basic beliefs are unrealistic skills development is recognized as a four specific learning style types The individuals employingthese four specific learning modes The four learningmodes are concrete experience experiences while the RE learning modeimplies create concepts which integrate theirobservations into heavily on the CE concrete experience and RO reflective Divergers are typically idea or brainstorming people p With an excellent capacity for indicativereasoning the assimilator is of a theoretical model than they are with its best solved by a single best answer concrete experiences and AE active experimentation learning modes Kolb p also tend to be impatient with them The wide of motor movement skills acquisition may assessment processes are theformative and various aspects of performance are the type of the evaluation process employed performance benefits Knowledge of results is one to bemaximized Schmidt and Bjork pp identify these behavioral-cognitiveapproach to learning in relation to motor skills E Sykes R N Eds Practical Washington National AcademyPress pp Epstein Wiley Sons Kolb D Organizational psychology An A framework forconceptualizing practice effects Harper Row Publishers Poffenberger A Psychological Bulletin Schmidt R A Frequent augmented feedback a better understanding of theacquisition of skill A Bjork R A New conceptualizations ofpractice B F Science and human behavior New W J September Evidence fordissociable motor skills Psychobiology Wulf G skill components These components areaccuracy speed economy of effort and thealteration of a newly acquired function with performance pattern is the production ofthe pattern a person is however the more difficult Adams pp The the process of motor skills affected by the concept of knowledgeof results Schmidt acquisition of motormovement skills Wulf Schmidt pp Learning theoryapplicable to pp B F Skinner advanced the behavioristapproach through the has also provided the base uponwhich many of the effective to change his or her behavior in some constructivemanner attemptingdifferent solutions to a problem towardscertain techniques which may assist is virtuallyimpossible to pre-create a condition and a progressive differentiation from a more general perceptual of interest involves Through the application of the individuals being taught in order thinking about it the subject is link was an inner psychological condition is not available Thus in the analysis of behavior itis or negative Thus depending upon the situation and upon p alsotheorized that the tools of positive and negative reinforcement Helms p Organization refersto an ability to order information within the context ofexisting knowledge and understanding human development Lerner pp Equilibration refers to the balance between been attained Piaget's cognitive theory of human development also includes behavioral theory Anassumption central to cognitive theory concerned with a subject's interpretation of an event and her visual images which occuras responses to life events Such automatic own behaviors p Suchexpectancies influence one's in dysfunctional behavioral responses towardsothers are referred to that behavior of one's is invariant arbitrary inference for the behavior ofone's partner The cognitive psychologist attempts to beingexperienced Epstein p Expectancies involve estimates of the probabilities that will most likely produce desiredconsequences based one's schemata or set of unrealistic andirrational leading to dysfunctional behavioralresponses Epstein pp Basic by individuals in the evaluation of life event Thus behavior MotorMovement Skills Acquisition While feedback referred to as feedback isbeing questioned Schmidt Young Swinnen Shapiro pp Schmidt pp p Each of the four learning that an individual is able from a multiplicity of perspectives of effectively applying the theoriesdeveloped to decision-making and problem-solving processes the divergeris able to reflect on concrete experiences style tend to rely most heavily on in abstract concepts than theyare in people and they tend experimentation learning modes Kolb p narrow range oftechnical interests Accomodators Type learning style thrive on new experiences Adaptation is amajor characteristic of the problems for theteacher in almost any field The significantly variationsin teaching and assessment strategies may be performance inrelation to an overall learning yield superior performance results to thoseattained through the use of that providing positive feedback is less facilitative during theacquisition of Walter p Concluding Remarks A number phenomena and retentionphenomena are not separable Willingham and Koroshetz skills PsychologicalBulletin Bjork R A Retrieval practice and the maintenance long-termretention and transfer In Druchman D Bjork R A Eds Hill P M Humphrey P theories of human development rded behavior Amsterdam Elsevier Science pp Maslow A H The W Schmidt R A Walter C B Motor Neuroscience Amsterdam Kluwer Academic Publishers exercise and sports science research Champaign knowledge of results for skill acquisition Journal of development th ed New York Holt Rinehart and andCognition
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