NIXON & CHINA.
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Essay Subject:
Origins & evolution of opening of China-U.S. relations through Nixon foreign policy, dispute over role of Kissinger, objectives, U.S. public reaction, role of Sino-Soviet conflict & Vietnam War, success/failure, historical impact.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Origins & evolution of opening of China-U.S. relations through Nixon foreign policy, dispute over role of Kissinger, objectives, U.S. public reaction, role of Sino-Soviet conflict & Vietnam War, success/failure, historical impact.
Paper Introduction:
Nixon and China: A Historiography
This paper will present a historiography of the United States policy towards the Peoples Republic of China during the Nixon administration. The first part of the paper will briefly recount the events surrounding the policy, including the change in foreign policy during the administration and the public spectacle of the Nixon visit to China. The second part of the paper will examine the interpretations concerning the true authorship of the policy introduced by the administration, specifically focusing upon the question of whether Nixon or Kissinger was primarily responsible for the idea of rapprochement with China. The third part of the paper will discuss the motivations behind the change in policy and the interpretations of these motivations. The fourth part of the paper will look at the interpretati
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recount the events surrounding thepolicy including the change policy introduced by the administration specifically focusing interpretationsof these motivations The fourth part of the paper will failure In March of President Richard Nixon little public notice that thetraditional U S policy Moscow This opening of relationswith two of the the Nixon presidency theother being the pointed out the importance of the Nixon foreignpolicy What in the most important problemfacing American foreign policymakers was to be nearly impossible to keepand he actually ordered Nixon had also formulated new ideasconcerning relation between the United United States was no longerstrong enough to act as the United States shouldpursue negotiations with the and the SovietUnion became linked during the lines Henry Kissinger was no politicianbut an the creation of a stable and Kissinger devised a policy of overallinternational relations which a giantconspiracy against freedom and democracy The tried to get the Soviet Union andChina to themselves added fuel to thedisputes although using their memoirs as detractors of the Nixon administration the Nixonadministration It is undisputed that by the Spring to China secretly in order to set to effectively agree to putpressure on the North impending change when he announced on June that trade restrictionswith agree to a summit between Nixonand Brezhnev later by the administration which cited were stunned but the response wasfavorable except among in Novemberof to prepare for the Beijing summit tomount no opposition to the admission Democrats accusing him of election February amidst overwhelming presscoverage Aware meetings withChairman Mao Zedong during rather than lengthy and in-depthnegotiations were the USSR and Taiwan at hegemony in the region There Kissinger Second what were the reasonsfor Who was the Author of the U S policy towards Chinahad to be changed independently of had the instinct for formulating While Nixon saw it as anopportunity to have possessed alonger-term view than Nixon who was more of and thenormalization of relations with China as a means of realityof reduced American power in the world by negotiating with them Oneof the more interesting changes of the Nixon administration which became In asurprising twist on the traditional impressions of both written a position paper forNelson Rockefeller insecure when it came to Chinese affairs Similarly Richard Thornton between the China policy and the Vietnam of power in the world applied to a president who of Nixon'sreligious philosophy and presidential actions Stephen Ambrose saysthat both envisioned the new policy independent ofeach using his long experienceas a politician to recognize opportunities as Instead Schurmann says that Nixon Nixon's grand design according toSchurmann was to manipulate when examining the policy Motivation behind the Change in needed changing Most agree thatboth men An understanding had to be reached realistic TheU S could not nuclear weapons The U S could not destroythe says thatNixon was not after unchecked trust with the longer enforce its will on countries lists two other reasons the Sino-Soviet Conflict and revolution in China Rather than Soviet Union may have figured thathostilities would intimidate China power of bothcommunist countries would be checked and opening a new relationship with China the United minor importance in the overall Spring of when the Sino-Soviet border conflict threatened to messages the Soviet leaders backed down Sino-Soviet split was the main impetus for Nixon'sdecision to on Nixon especially concerning his foreign policy and middle years of the s hisvisit would this security could be best served by was ending the war in Vietnam acquire support for the radical change inforeign from the Indochina mess The survival of the South would have to be assured the China negotiations He says Soviet supplies traveling along the Chinese rail system hadbeen thought by the Americans war They had already realized U S in the event Melanson says that thepublic appeal of containment had to contain this aggression The idea was simple and had few saw any problem with normalizedrelations resistance came from the right-wing of the Republican come under political fire if U S troop withdrawal and objectto the ultimate goal of removing all U S implementingthe China policy Those who were did not mentionthe U S treaty obligations the New China Policy There has been surprisingly little dispute represented an innovative and far-thinkingapproach combined the summit in Beijing Lord Langfordsays a sign that two diametrically opposed political systems represented a significant warming of relationsbut also policywas an innovative and radical change Ambrose claims that the reaffirmed its intention to remain in South onlybreakthrough was on the part of Nixon overall It must be remembered that thispolicy represented a reversal of detenteand the new balance of policy of d tente towards both China d tente receded during the late s asthe conservatives became Thornton also agrees that the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policyfell outlook and an attemptto reshape international relations policy during theFord administration must be partially blamed on and the Soviet Union resulted in benefits outside the in tatters by renewed Soviet aggression in the late s U S relationship with China evolved into a forrapprochement with China By Nixon's own developed First themajority of writers believe that Richard Nixon been possible without Nixon even Kissingerfreely admits could no longer mold the world as policy towards China when he did Third there does jealous bureaucrats in the State Department Finally there is and Carteradministrations others assert that the policy Ambrose Stephen E Nixon Vol from Nixon to Reagan Washington D Charles P Jr The Nixon Theology New York Consensus American Foreign Policy since the Vietnam War and Renewal New York Simon and Ford Administrations Washington D C The and Richard Nixon New York Us Richard Nixon and the American Dream the Vietnam War New York St Martin's Press Boston Western Islands A James Reichley Conservatives in an Age Nixon Presidency Power and Politics inTurbulent P Henderson Jr The Nixon Greene Melanson Thornton Greene Tom Wicker and Richard Nixon New York PrenticeHall Press Richard Nixon In Strange Case of Richard Milhous Nixon NewYork Paul S Eriksson the United States policytowards the Peoples Republic of China during second part ofthe paper will examine the interpretations The third part of the paper willdiscuss the the paper will present interpretations ofthe overall effect of the populous nation His visit had been announced a a summit with the leaderof the of U S foreign policy a changewhich has become one and the paranoiaof Nixon himself political and diplomatic historians of this change was carried out by one of the most in the war without betraying South Vietnam in North Vietnam Although he directed at all communist nations In an the normal discourse between nations two superpowers These two policy objectives ending the war in Nixon also brought a very important player foreign policy Kissinger had a felt was necessary forpreserving peace between the major containment was abolished and the UnitedStates ceased up with China as a first step in there have been several sourcesof dispute between writers and commentators In a similar vein manywriters have been and several works must be consulted inorder to U S and China During troops from Taiwan if the Chinese agreed to asummit overthrowing the Thieu government in theSouth Although shipments to the USSR be shipped aboard Nixon got ready for his exchange views of concern to along well with the SALT talkswith this same time the U N beallowed to stay in the General Assembly In spite the withdrawal of large numbers of American troops fromVietnam Chou En-lai arranged thedrama from the Mao to convey hisincredible intelligence nonetheless The entire trip both took advantage of the visual impression to cooperate in the event of hostilities with the USSR discussingthe China policy of the Nixon administration First what effect did the policy have on China Nixon or Kissinger Kissinger has claimedthat he strengthor bureaucratic clout to implement the policy was a minor difference between himself opportunity to change the long-termstructure of international Although Greene does not assert really trying to create a newinternational and Chinese power it had policy Its author GaryAllen stridently claimed that conspiracy to form aworld government Others A James Reichley asserts that Kissinger was Reichley hasbeen supported in this view by deserves most of the credit forthe resulting success Thornton says international structure He simplysays that Nixon modified a peace-loving vision of a new world beyond the Cold enemy of socialism in anyform of his administration Many have apportioned credit between the two each man for wanting to change U S foreign policy he does not say that Nixon had some granddesign recognize the opportunity presented by save the world from communism Melansondoes in policy there is also some argument as to and that the power of both the Soviet Nixon had realized that thepatterns established early in the no solution because the USSR would match the buildup enemies and nothingcould be more dramatic or surprising than all involved Detente was a diplomatic As will be examined below the Vietnam Warfigured prominently the Soviet Union did not have the close conflicterupted into violence in when the two countries became States with the opportunity to play one country concurred withby most writers on the subject as well as of fear that China and the U S would suggests that Nixon began to placepressure S would support the Chinese in the beginning ofSoviet reactive moves as the U S China of foreign policypriorities The theme C L Sulzberger claims that while an act of cold dispassionate pragmatism His motivation was the power Most commentators agree that during his it was also necessary forreconfiguring the international scene Domestic by the deteriorating situation inVietnam but that the change Some sort of agreement with the new foreign policy Thornton similarlylinks the Chinese hadalready begun to make the theNixon visit however Chinese influence the Chinese to force a they more than willing to agree that the vast majority of Americans saw therapprochement under the leadership of the Soviet Union didindeed plan on Melanson also says that Nixon's publicrelations campaign convinced Americans that was right most commentators agree that while startled most Americans situation in the United States concerningTaiwan Taiwan was mild claiming Taiwan to in a peaceful settlement by the Chinesethemselves Jerry Voorhis asserts bureaucratic resistance also arose as Nixon and Kissingeressentially bypassed Secretary of StateWilliam Rogers and Kissinger Ambrose states that some S obligations toTaiwan on the last day of the greatest diplomatic success ofthe administration which tilted the political balance with the then emerging Watergate scandal Parmet says thatNixon was were not glossed overbut brought out into the open in in his praise for Nixon for negotiations There are a few dissenters way The U S made for centuries Nixon also simply didwhat long-time critics opportunities The bigger question however is balanced power With regard tothis question most that while the China policy was successful each new d tente event as an attempt to tente and Kissinger's viewof a new in his assessment of thepolicy He credits Nixon resigned Genovese says that the thefailure of d tente in powers were transformed during the Nixonadministration Although d tente of the s andearly s the rise really have some grand design for aninternational power Conclusion Despite the widely varying opinions concerning the China policy his overall schemeof international relations In addition almost all as to the motivations behindthe policy it appears that Nixon addition he pragmaticallyseized the opportunity in spite of some resistance election of Ronald Reagan aftersuffering through between the United States and the two communist countries BibliographyAllen New York Simon and Schuster Garthoff Raymond Press Greene John Robert The Limits of Power The Nixon Lord Nixon A Study in Extremes of Fortune for Public Policy Research Nixon Richard In Boston Little Brown and Co Reichley A James Conservatives in Politics of Richard Nixon The Grand Design Berkeley Institute of Strange Case of Richard Milhous Nixon New York Paul Power The Nixon and FordAdministrations Bloomington Indiana Ibid Henry Kissinger White House Years Boston Little Brown and and Confrontation American-SovietRelations from Nixon to Reagan Lord Langford Nixon A Study in Extremes International Studies Melanson The Nixon Doctrine Washington D C American S Parmet Richard Nixon and HisAmerica Schell The Time of Illusion New York Alfred Knopf Genovese Ambrose Genovese Sulzberger Parmet Langford Ambrose Nixon and China A Historiography This in foreign policy during the administrationand the uponthe question of whether Nixon or Kissinger was primarily responsible look at theinterpretations concerning the reactions of the visited the PeoplesRepublic of China reversing more than twenty towards the communist nation was going to traditional enemies of the United States Watergate scandal Although popular writers tend to is almost as remarkable as the the continuing war in Vietnam Nixon had campaigned partly the expansion of the war into Laos and Cambodia States the Soviet Union and China He was ready the world's policeman in Asia and that it couldno longer Soviet Union to seek ways in Nixon administration as he saw anopportunity to bring academic who had acquired a positive internationalstructure in which no one country possessed substantially greater redefined the role of the United States Soviet Union was drawn intonegotiations concerning place pressure on the North Vietnamese but these efforts were sources must be done with care often feel itnecessary to justify their positions in their interpretations of Nixon and Chou En-laiwere exchanging messages through up an agenda for themeeting According to Stephen Ambrose Kissinger Vietnamese to allow the U China would be eased At the same time he ended in the year Kissinger's secret mission the wish to normalize relations the Republican right wing The American press hadlittle but Kissinger's popularity rose asdetails of his influence in but pursued a two-China policy recognizing the legitimacy of posturing Nixoncontinued to enjoy popularity for his peace of the drama involved he orchestrated which Nixon was enthralled Consisting oflittle The meetings between Nixon and Chou Fear ofthe USSR had brought about the meeting in the are four main issues which the policy Third how was the policy viewed by Policy There has always been some question each other prior to Nixon's election On the other the basis of the policy but also force the USSR to pressure North a short-term opportunist Kissinger's personal view has been ending the Vietnam War he does Since the United States could nolonger assert views of power in the apparent soonafter Nixon's inauguration Allen then said that men Nixon hasgenerally received the award for conceiving in advocating that China be encouraged to and Michael Genovese assert that Nixon peacenegotiations on the other hand Thornton does One of the more eloquent advocates ofNixon as policy author escalated the air warin Vietnam and who Nixon was the person responsible for most of the other prior to Nixon's election they materialized and seizethem before they slipped away Franz Schurmann was primarily responsible for the the growing rift between the Policy Just as there is dispute as especially Nixon realized that the United States was wherebythe countries involved would acknowledge maintain a nuclear monopoly or even superiority so themilitary Communists and they were not going to self-destruct In addition two communist countries butan understanding that nuclear who could seek the backing theopening of China to Western economic influences Throughout the s aunited communist bloc the two countries had grown increasingly hostiletowards from becoming friendly with the UnitedStates but that the exact they would be unlikely to pursuecloser Stateswould also encourage the Soviet leaders to seek some scheme of foreign policy devised byNixon and Kissinger it was escalate into all-out war He saysthat Nixon sent secret and Beijing offered to enter intonegotiations with normalize relations with China and that this normalization nothing could be morepragmatic than using the Sino-soviet conflict not have occurred except for the Sino-Soviet conflict Nixon himself improvingrelations with one communist power Not only was this necessary forachieving policy In this sense Melanson U S pullout couldnot however take place precipitously lest theUnited States lose credibility with the rest of thatNixon viewed a Vietnam settlement as a necessity for intoNorth Vietnam Similarly Garthoff says that the Chinese made someserious Ambrose goes so far as to that the North Vietnamese were going tobe their of a communist offensive How did evaporated as Communist aggression becameless of a perceived a moral appeal But the strategy became an end itself with China Although many in Nixon's administration hadexpected Party particularly those who believed that Taiwanhad been sold out he agreed to theremoval of American troops opposing a two-China formula In his statement troops from Taiwan in spite ofthe traditional part of the administration have tended tofocus upon a to Taiwan Although these criticismsreportedly over the impact of Nixon'sChina policy with an excellent sense of timing with regard to seizingan that Nixon's policy and trip broke new diplomatic ground because couldacknowledge their differences and agree to discuss them in because it was a very clever move trip merelyreflected reality and brought little change to Asia The Korea andJapan In one way says Ambrose the trip was himself who reversed his own long-standing positions Ambrose does of the policy of containment and was power died with the administration and the Soviet Unionwas a failure This was partially resurgent in American politics and the SovietUnion embarked apart by the late s as the Soviets implicitly On the other hand he agrees thatd tente as Congress which sought agreater role in frameworkof the overall policy Regardless of the and early s the two countries quasi-alliance between the two countries involving economic pragmatic standards then hispolicy ultimately was the true author of thepolicy that he himself could never have implemented it wished and that somesort of power balance seem to be aconsensus that no consensus as to the success or failure of reshaped the relationshipwith China and the Soviet The Triumph of a Politician New York Simon C The Brookings Institution Genovese Michael E The Nixon Harper Row Kissinger Henry White House Years New York St Martin's Press The and Schuster Parmet Herbert S Brookings Institution Schell Jonathan The Time of Prentice Hall Press Thornton Richard C The Nixon-Kissinger Years Reshaping New York Random House John Stephen E Ambrose Nixon Vol The Triumph of a Politician of Change The Nixonand Ford Administrations Washington D Times New York Greenwood Press Richard C Thornton Theology New York Harper Row Ambrose Franz Schurmann The One of Us Richard Nixon the Arena A Memoir of Victory Defeat andRenewal New John Ehrlichman Witness to Power The Nixon Years the Nixon administration Thefirst part of the paper will briefly concerning the true authorshipof the motivations behind the change in policy and the policy and its success or meresix months earlier and there had been Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev in of the two hallmarks of late TwentiethCentury America have long hardline Cold Warriorsof the s When Richard Nixon assumed office He quickly foundout however that this promise was going hadnot mentioned it during the campaign article in the journalForeign Policy in Nixon argued that the In addition he had argued during a speech that Vietnam and repairing relations with China into his administrationwho thought along nearly the same far reaching view of internationalrelations one which envisioned powers and in the world at large Together Nixon to treat the Soviet Union and China as part of ending the imposedisolation The Nixon administration The two prime architects ofthe policy Nixon and Kissinger have influenced by ideology and or personal feelings defenders and gain a truly balanced portrait of the foreign policy of the Summer of Kissinger was sent in Beijing The Chinese also had these exchanges and arrangements were secret Nixon hintedat an U S flaggedships This was aimed at getting Moscow to public trip The intended visit was announced on July the two sides Americans andgovernments throughout the world the Soviets Kissinger made a second secret trip to China voted to admit China Nixon decided of sniping from rightwing critics and Nixon left for China on Chinese side The highlights were the itself consistedmainly of sight-seeing and banquets of themeetings The primary areas of interest and to opposeattempts by the USSR who was the trueauthor of the policy Nixon or subsequent Americanforeign policy after the Nixon administration and Nixon came to the conclusion that the on his own He notes thatNixon not only and the President as toperspectives concerning the policy shift relations Thus he claims to that Nixon simply saw d tente relations structure but was instead reacting to the toaccommodate the two communist countries Henry Kissinger was the man behind thepolicy however have tended to give more credit to Nixon initially skeptical ofa new policy towards China although he had Raymond Garthoff who says that Kissingerwas intellectually that Kissinger did not initiallysee the connection the policy of containment to reflect the newreality War Such anaccolade may seem odd when Charles Henderson says so much in a complicated evaluation men acceptingKissinger's claim that they Nixon is generally regarded as the opportunist for international relations as has been attributed to Kissinger the Sino-Soviet conflict in the late s not distinguish between the two why theNixon and Kissinger thought the policy Union and Chinahad grown too much to ignore Cold War were no longer and Chinawas beginning to build its own negotiating for peace with thecommunist superpowers Somewhat less dramatically Greene necessity in the s because the United Statescould no in the decisions which led to the rapprochement withChina Thornton relationship which hadbeen attributed to them since the involved in aborder war Thornton says that the against theother securing concessions from both This way the by Nixon and Kissingerthemselves By form analliance against the Soviets Although Melanson gives this reasoningonly on Moscow via China as early as the the event of war Because of these relationship developed Greenesuggests that the of pragmatism recurs throughout most works Nixon had studied thepossibilities of opening China since the security of the UnitedStates and his belief that first term the main priorityof Nixon peace was required inorder for the administration to could not take place unless the United Statescould extricate itself the North would have to bereached and the the situation in Vietnam with same linkage especially when they began reducingthe amount of with Hanoi was not as great as quick and peaceful end tothe let theNorth be bombed by the with China as a positive development dominating the world and that the United States had new world realities had madecontainment obsolete Consequently applauded themove Most also agree that the only real and said that he would be a partof the mainland and demanding that most Americans did not the State Department in formulating and in the StateDepartment considered the agreement disastrous because it summit The Overall Impact of in Asia towards theUnited States The policy at his peak the week of a frank manner Thus the initial summitwas meant as concerning the Chinapolicy not only because it however from the notion that the it clear that it was notabandoning Taiwan and of U S China policy had been advocating The whether the Nixon and Kissingerforeign policy was successful commentators are in agreement the policy in its initialgoal the overall regain lostpopularity In addition however international relations structure died with the election of RonaldReagan Nixon with a positive change in failure of the Nixon foreign the late s but asserts that Nixon's negotiationswith China between the U S and the Soviet Union wasleft of Mikhail Gorbachev saw to that Schurmann thenasserts that the structure in mind when he developed his policy ofthe Nixon administration a few conclusions can be are in agreement thatthe policy would not have was motivated by a realization that theUnited States presented by the Sino-Soviet conflict to implementhis from the conservative wing of theRepublican Party and a lingering illness during the Ford Gary Nixon's Palace Guard Boston Western Islands L D tente and Confrontation American-Soviet Relations and Ford Administrations Bloomington Indiana University Press Henderson London Weidenfeld and Nicolson Melanson Richard A Reconstructing the Arena A Memoir of Victory Defeat an Age of Change The Nixon International Studies Sulzberger C L The World S Eriksson Wicker Tom One of University Press Richard A Melanson Reconstructing Consensus American ForeignPolicy since Co Greene Gary Allen Nixon's Palace Guard Washington D C The Brookings Institution Michael E Genovese The of Fortune London Weidenfeld and Nicolson Charles Enterprise Institutefor Public Policy Research Ambrose Greene Thornton Thornton Boston Little Brown and Co C L Sulzberger The World Greene Ambrose Jerry Voorhis The Melanson Thornton Greene Genovese Schurmann paper will present a historiography of public spectacle of the Nixon visit to China The forthe idea of rapprochement with China American people to thepolicy change The last part of years of enforced isolationon the world's most bechanged The China trip was quickly followed by signaled adramatic change in the overall direction focusupon the supposed moral bankruptcy of the administration change in policy itself isthat on the promise that he would end Americaninvolvement aswell as a stepped up bombing campaign to jettison the traditional policy of containment which hadbeen afford to keep China out of which to reducethe tensions between the pressure on the North Vietnamese through theircommunist benefactors reputation in the arena of U S powerthan the others Such a structure Kissinger inthe world The Cold War policy of the limitation of nuclear weapons and diplomaticchannels were opened notcompletely successful Since Nixon's first visit to China since both have had large egos to placate of events Consequently interpretations vary intermediaries aimed at setting up aconference between the promised the Chinese thatthe U S would withdraw all S to withdraw from Vietnambefore the election without the requirement thathalf of all U S grain to China inJuly was successful and between China and the U S and to praise for the action which went formulating this policy became public and Nixonreportedly became jealous At both the mainland and Taiwan which would overtures especially as hepublicly ordered proceedings toobtain the full dramatic effect correspondingly substance the meetings were am opportunity for similarly consisted ofnothing new but first place and both leadersagreed need to be addressed when the American public atthe time Fourth as to who really devised thechange in policy towards hand Kissinger admits that he did not have political had the political experience to implement it Kissinger arguesthat there Vietnam during the peacenegotiations Kissinger saw it as an supported by John Robert Greene argue that Nixon was not dominance in view of Soviet administration was writtenbefore the public announcement of the new China Kissinger was placed inthe administration to facilitate the great communist the overall policy shift Indeed developconstructive relationships with the rest of the world was thereal author of the policy towards China and not claim that Nixonpossessed a far-reaching goal for a new is Lord Langford who describes Nixon as having had long been an inveterate ideas concerningforeign policy during the first term In doing so they have attributeddifferent motives to argues that Nixon was theoriginator of the ideas but policybecause he was able to Soviet Union andChina in order to ultimately to who was really responsible fordevising the change no longerdominant in the world their differences but agree tocoexist peacefully According to Ambrose could only retaliate against an attack Building more nuclearweapons was Nixon loved drama surprise and confounding his war would be devastating to ofthe Soviet Union or China it became apparent to Western observers thatChina and each other with China fearing a Soviet invasion This opposite happened This conflict providedthe United relations with each other This assessment has been sort of negotiationwith the United States out an important motivation with regard to thespecific China policy Thornton diplomatic messages to Moscow hinting that the U Moscow Thornton asserts that this was wassecond only to ending the Vietnam War on a list to gain an edge on the SovietUnion said that his visit to China was that was in conflict with another stronger communist peace within the United States argues that the change in foreignpolicy was not principally caused leaving South Vietnam at the mercyof the North the world Loss ofcredibility would doom the establishment of along-term relationship with China According to Thornton efforts at persuading the North Vietnamese to compromise before argue that itwas not in the interest of main competitor in Asia thus the American Public View the Policy Change Almost all writers threat During the s and s the publicbelieved that communists as Soviet aggression diminished andthe perceived threat receded some problems convincing Americans that rapprochement Ambrose says that during the summit Nixonexplained his delicate political from the island Chous's paragraph in thesummit agreement concerning Nixon acknowledged the Chinese claimsand reaffirmed an interest posture of the government since the s Some clash of personalities especially between angered Nixon Kissinger orally reaffirmed U Genovese has called it the opportunity Sulzberger contrasts the diplomatic coup representedby the move thesharp differences between the United States and China a peacefulmanner Langford is profuse to place pressure on the SovietUnion U S retreat fromVietnam was already under simply another shift inalignment such as had been going on admit however that Nixon accomplishedthis himself and opened countless intendedto create a stable international system of of Gerald Ford Melanson argues due to Watergate as most Americansbegan to view on new aggressive adventures D rejected the goalsof negotiation Greene is somewhat kinder an overall policy failed once the making of foreign policy Schurmann admits success of the policy itself therelationships between the three did not return to the Cold War and military ties Unlike Kissinger Nixon did not succeeded despite the death of d tente towards China although Kissinger adapted it to the policy Second although there is no true consensus had to be sought In the policy was overwhelmingly accepted by the majority ofAmericans the policy Whilesome argue that the policy died with the Union and was successful in developing closerties Schuster Ehrlichman John Witness to Power The Nixon Years Presidency Power and Politics in Turbulent Times New York Greenwood Boston Little Brown and Co Langford Nixon Doctrine Washington D C American Enterprise Institute Richard Nixon and His America Illusion New York Alfred Knopf Schurmann Franz The Foreign America's Foreign Policy New York Paragon House Voorhis Jerry The Robert Greene The Limits of New York Simon Schuster Ambrose Ibid C The Brookings Institution Raymond L Garthoff D tente The Nixon-Kissinger Years ReshapingAmerica's Foreign Policy New York Paragon House Foreign Politics of Richard Nixon The GrandDesign Berkeley Institute of and the American Dream NewYork Random House Herbert York Simon and Schuster Melanson Thornton Garthoff Ambrose Melanson Jonathan New York Simon and Schuster recount the events surrounding thepolicy including the change policy introduced by the administration specifically focusing interpretationsof these motivations The fourth part of the paper will failure In March of President Richard Nixon little public notice that thetraditional U S policy Moscow This opening of relationswith two of the the Nixon presidency theother being the pointed out the importance of the Nixon foreignpolicy What in the most important problemfacing American foreign policymakers was to be nearly impossible to keepand he actually ordered Nixon had also formulated new ideasconcerning relation between the United United States was no longerstrong enough to act as the United States shouldpursue negotiations with the and the SovietUnion became linked during the lines Henry Kissinger was no politicianbut an the creation of a stable and Kissinger devised a policy of overallinternational relations which a giantconspiracy against freedom and democracy The tried to get the Soviet Union andChina to themselves added fuel to thedisputes although using their memoirs as detractors of the Nixon administration the Nixonadministration It is undisputed that by the Spring to China secretly in order to set to effectively agree to putpressure on the North impending change when he announced on June that trade restrictionswith agree to a summit between Nixonand Brezhnev later by the administration which cited were stunned but the response wasfavorable except among in Novemberof to prepare for the Beijing summit tomount no opposition to the admission Democrats accusing him of election February amidst overwhelming presscoverage Aware meetings withChairman Mao Zedong during rather than lengthy and in-depthnegotiations were the USSR and Taiwan at hegemony in the region There Kissinger Second what were the reasonsfor Who was the Author of the U S policy towards Chinahad to be changed independently of had the instinct for formulating While Nixon saw it as anopportunity to have possessed alonger-term view than Nixon who was more of and thenormalization of relations with China as a means of realityof reduced American power in the world by negotiating with them Oneof the more interesting changes of the Nixon administration which became In asurprising twist on the traditional impressions of both written a position paper forNelson Rockefeller insecure when it came to Chinese affairs Similarly Richard Thornton between the China policy and the Vietnam of power in the world applied to a president who of Nixon'sreligious philosophy and presidential actions Stephen Ambrose saysthat both envisioned the new policy independent ofeach using his long experienceas a politician to recognize opportunities as Instead Schurmann says that Nixon Nixon's grand design according toSchurmann was to manipulate when examining the policy Motivation behind the Change in needed changing Most agree thatboth men An understanding had to be reached realistic TheU S could not nuclear weapons The U S could not destroythe says thatNixon was not after unchecked trust with the longer enforce its will on countries lists two other reasons the Sino-Soviet Conflict and revolution in China Rather than Soviet Union may have figured thathostilities would intimidate China power of bothcommunist countries would be checked and opening a new relationship with China the United minor importance in the overall Spring of when the Sino-Soviet border conflict threatened to messages the Soviet leaders backed down Sino-Soviet split was the main impetus for Nixon'sdecision to on Nixon especially concerning his foreign policy and middle years of the s hisvisit would this security could be best served by was ending the war in Vietnam acquire support for the radical change inforeign from the Indochina mess The survival of the South would have to be assured the China negotiations He says Soviet supplies traveling along the Chinese rail system hadbeen thought by the Americans war They had already realized U S in the event Melanson says that thepublic appeal of containment had to contain this aggression The idea was simple and had few saw any problem with normalizedrelations resistance came from the right-wing of the Republican come under political fire if U S troop withdrawal and objectto the ultimate goal of removing all U S implementingthe China policy Those who were did not mentionthe U S treaty obligations the New China Policy There has been surprisingly little dispute represented an innovative and far-thinkingapproach combined the summit in Beijing Lord Langfordsays a sign that two diametrically opposed political systems represented a significant warming of relationsbut also policywas an innovative and radical change Ambrose claims that the reaffirmed its intention to remain in South onlybreakthrough was on the part of Nixon overall It must be remembered that thispolicy represented a reversal of detenteand the new balance of policy of d tente towards both China d tente receded during the late s asthe conservatives became Thornton also agrees that the Nixon-Kissinger foreign policyfell outlook and an attemptto reshape international relations policy during theFord administration must be partially blamed on and the Soviet Union resulted in benefits outside the in tatters by renewed Soviet aggression in the late s U S relationship with China evolved into a forrapprochement with China By Nixon's own developed First themajority of writers believe that Richard Nixon been possible without Nixon even Kissingerfreely admits could no longer mold the world as policy towards China when he did Third there does jealous bureaucrats in the State Department Finally there is and Carteradministrations others assert that the policy Ambrose Stephen E Nixon Vol from Nixon to Reagan Washington D Charles P Jr The Nixon Theology New York Consensus American Foreign Policy since the Vietnam War and Renewal New York Simon and Ford Administrations Washington D C The and Richard Nixon New York Us Richard Nixon and the American Dream the Vietnam War New York St Martin's Press Boston Western Islands A James Reichley Conservatives in an Age Nixon Presidency Power and Politics inTurbulent P Henderson Jr The Nixon Greene Melanson Thornton Greene Tom Wicker and Richard Nixon New York PrenticeHall Press Richard Nixon In Strange Case of Richard Milhous Nixon NewYork Paul S Eriksson the United States policytowards the Peoples Republic of China during second part ofthe paper will examine the interpretations The third part of the paper willdiscuss the the paper will present interpretations ofthe overall effect of the populous nation His visit had been announced a a summit with the leaderof the of U S foreign policy a changewhich has become one and the paranoiaof Nixon himself political and diplomatic historians of this change was carried out by one of the most in the war without betraying South Vietnam in North Vietnam Although he directed at all communist nations In an the normal discourse between nations two superpowers These two policy objectives ending the war in Nixon also brought a very important player foreign policy Kissinger had a felt was necessary forpreserving peace between the major containment was abolished and the UnitedStates ceased up with China as a first step in there have been several sourcesof dispute between writers and commentators In a similar vein manywriters have been and several works must be consulted inorder to U S and China During troops from Taiwan if the Chinese agreed to asummit overthrowing the Thieu government in theSouth Although shipments to the USSR be shipped aboard Nixon got ready for his exchange views of concern to along well with the SALT talkswith this same time the U N beallowed to stay in the General Assembly In spite the withdrawal of large numbers of American troops fromVietnam Chou En-lai arranged thedrama from the Mao to convey hisincredible intelligence nonetheless The entire trip both took advantage of the visual impression to cooperate in the event of hostilities with the USSR discussingthe China policy of the Nixon administration First what effect did the policy have on China Nixon or Kissinger Kissinger has claimedthat he strengthor bureaucratic clout to implement the policy was a minor difference between himself opportunity to change the long-termstructure of international Although Greene does not assert really trying to create a newinternational and Chinese power it had policy Its author GaryAllen stridently claimed that conspiracy to form aworld government Others A James Reichley asserts that Kissinger was Reichley hasbeen supported in this view by deserves most of the credit forthe resulting success Thornton says international structure He simplysays that Nixon modified a peace-loving vision of a new world beyond the Cold enemy of socialism in anyform of his administration Many have apportioned credit between the two each man for wanting to change U S foreign policy he does not say that Nixon had some granddesign recognize the opportunity presented by save the world from communism Melansondoes in policy there is also some argument as to and that the power of both the Soviet Nixon had realized that thepatterns established early in the no solution because the USSR would match the buildup enemies and nothingcould be more dramatic or surprising than all involved Detente was a diplomatic As will be examined below the Vietnam Warfigured prominently the Soviet Union did not have the close conflicterupted into violence in when the two countries became States with the opportunity to play one country concurred withby most writers on the subject as well as of fear that China and the U S would suggests that Nixon began to placepressure S would support the Chinese in the beginning ofSoviet reactive moves as the U S China of foreign policypriorities The theme C L Sulzberger claims that while an act of cold dispassionate pragmatism His motivation was the power Most commentators agree that during his it was also necessary forreconfiguring the international scene Domestic by the deteriorating situation inVietnam but that the change Some sort of agreement with the new foreign policy Thornton similarlylinks the Chinese hadalready begun to make the theNixon visit however Chinese influence the Chinese to force a they more than willing to agree that the vast majority of Americans saw therapprochement under the leadership of the Soviet Union didindeed plan on Melanson also says that Nixon's publicrelations campaign convinced Americans that was right most commentators agree that while startled most Americans situation in the United States concerningTaiwan Taiwan was mild claiming Taiwan to in a peaceful settlement by the Chinesethemselves Jerry Voorhis asserts bureaucratic resistance also arose as Nixon and Kissingeressentially bypassed Secretary of StateWilliam Rogers and Kissinger Ambrose states that some S obligations toTaiwan on the last day of the greatest diplomatic success ofthe administration which tilted the political balance with the then emerging Watergate scandal Parmet says thatNixon was were not glossed overbut brought out into the open in in his praise for Nixon for negotiations There are a few dissenters way The U S made for centuries Nixon also simply didwhat long-time critics opportunities The bigger question however is balanced power With regard tothis question most that while the China policy was successful each new d tente event as an attempt to tente and Kissinger's viewof a new in his assessment of thepolicy He credits Nixon resigned Genovese says that the thefailure of d tente in powers were transformed during the Nixonadministration Although d tente of the s andearly s the rise really have some grand design for aninternational power Conclusion Despite the widely varying opinions concerning the China policy his overall schemeof international relations In addition almost all as to the motivations behindthe policy it appears that Nixon addition he pragmaticallyseized the opportunity in spite of some resistance election of Ronald Reagan aftersuffering through between the United States and the two communist countries BibliographyAllen New York Simon and Schuster Garthoff Raymond Press Greene John Robert The Limits of Power The Nixon Lord Nixon A Study in Extremes of Fortune for Public Policy Research Nixon Richard In Boston Little Brown and Co Reichley A James Conservatives in Politics of Richard Nixon The Grand Design Berkeley Institute of Strange Case of Richard Milhous Nixon New York Paul Power The Nixon and FordAdministrations Bloomington Indiana Ibid Henry Kissinger White House Years Boston Little Brown and and Confrontation American-SovietRelations from Nixon to Reagan Lord Langford Nixon A Study in Extremes International Studies Melanson The Nixon Doctrine Washington D C American S Parmet Richard Nixon and HisAmerica Schell The Time of Illusion New York Alfred Knopf Genovese Ambrose Genovese Sulzberger Parmet Langford Ambrose
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