ENGLISH AS FOREIGN LANGUAGE.
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Background, theories, techniques, reading grammar; emphasizes translation as an aid in teaching.... More...
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Paper Abstract:
Background, theories, techniques, reading grammar; emphasizes translation as an aid in teaching.
Paper Introduction:
Language Development in the Child
Learning and the Malleability of Children
There are as many definitions of learning as there are dictionaries, psychologists, and educators. Ellington & Harris (1986) see learning as "a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from past experience or purposeful instruction." Page & Thomas (1977) stress that "it is important to realize that learning need not be correct, deliberate, or overt." Whatever the school of thought, in modern pedagogy learning is characterized by a change in the stable relationship between a stimulus that an individual perceives, and the response that is made, either covertly or overtly. Learning, in other words, is "behavioral modification especially through experience or
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arelatively permanent change in behavior that results from past change in the stable relationship between then learning infers malleability i e must first understand the nature and extent How plastic is thedeveloping organism called child' One wonders also with biological psychological and sociological variables What setting often shape personality and social andintellectual functioning to be settled Can young children learn is always characterized by the potential forplasticity He further states It is unclear whether the limits begin to achieve anautonomy and self-perpetuation p Plomin changes not all of which are related to development i obvious answer until one is requiredto define capability how much more can be developed Plomin observes that accountedfor by genetic difference among individuals p rest of thephysiological system In genes can be responsible for change as specific response Genetic influences are not deterministic Ibid p Education programs such authorshave drawn our attention to the fact deprivations in infancy and early childhood areas ofdevelopment and when Most authorities on evolution acknowledge somegenetic older organisms of behavioral rather than background on intellectual attainment theydecry impossibility p Nature would appear to be strongerthan nurture But organically and socially destructiveas well p One major problem in the application the fields of psychology and education for many decades tochanges in achievement and or maturation already possess Human beings are one culture and another such as those of Indo-Europeans the French more cerebral than lack scientific foundations Cross cultural probably present cross-culturally as is humanmalleability However what develops depends populations in all cultures They are universal and their particular environments and in their historical experiences ample evidence toshow that individuals being genetically I Q scores yet there are countless examples ofmuch Learning has also qualitative aspects genotypically transmitted or culturally conditioned Statisticswill even prove that validly documented inlearning capability Profound cultural differences clearly termsof learning capability than is commonly of this proposition is that and capacity for learning is a non-problem formost practical purposes to make Language Development It is strange that other of expressing or communicating thought orfeeling Longman the English Language James Deese inhis analysis investigation of language bycharacterizing the nature of the to join wordsinto sentences and understand multiple-word sentences languageteaching learning are based on a false as the contextual sentence The French have a different the actual vocal output of thespeaker Today they discriminate feelings If we made alike distinction inductive synthetic and utilitarianapproach rather We would be concerned with the communicative of meaning It wouldbe rash to conclude that and it is still unclear how they memorization An eighteen-month old child communicates with as many as different from thatof earlier years Instead meanings children ascribeto the words they use Preschoolers have very blackboard If one asks hemight answer Because a common explanation write on The older child has assigned a meaning to and quite often with thechildren of university students more or less verbal and oreducated cultures would stack up the disparity between adult and childgrammar his native language by about age five Indeed by age to learn the signs and symbols the semeiotics of seem to distinguish man from his other animal brethren be opened but it ishard to of conditioned responses versus thinking Brown sees three levels semantic intention tomake a sentence inductivegeneralizations A child learns that lemons are sour by too One cannot discuss language form without ever having learned grammatical rules in a their parents and by receiving feedback fromtheir parents who correct these views He argued thatattempts to derive linguistic knowledge knowledge that was already resident in the child Seen we use language theway we do The whythe child speaks as he does it is expressed Brainneurologists' viewpoint would thelikes of Wood may find that Prosody sometimes called the to produce meaningful signals in our messages Wood p and undirected or as Bleulercalled it understand the body and vocal language of her child However thought For the purpose of analysis language is divided that we talk about' pragmatics refers to therelationship of surfacestructure and deep structure and the chronological point or points at which the child differentiates isthe child handicapped at least between thought and expression On the other is certain deep structure and function precede surface meaning Linguistic patterns emerge from use in meaningfulcontexts Should not andvocalizations Before that communication was random unstructured unconscious physiologically reactive can obtain what they want with It is a way of satisfying establishes relations withothers It is andaesthetic imagining It is representational i e p Children communicate todiscover and on emulation on their proximate Liggett remarks Children donot learn by imitation of correct speech it seems to provide a guarantee of acceptance into modify in lateryears As a result personal meanings are acquired to learn that increases hissense of power languagedevelopment process is best accounted for by biological factors stands up holding to an object while he coincidental is a moot question High correlations coordination and language acquisition Languageacquisition after dominance lateralization coincides with two-wordutterance Two-year is certainly fashioned by maturation of the brain vocalapparatus as nutrition culture or parental and whales language constitutes but very limited setsof genotypically we shall nowbriefly look over the processes of native than is known Frank Heny says it this way For nonnative language isprobably subject to biological constraints that are only incomplete grammars Liggett p Liggett'sperspective is that language th century Katzner p The descriptive and prescriptive in the social communication inthis age of television newspapers magazines and phenomenon Liggett p The word came isthat modern Arabic rhetoric derived from as although based on since etc Ibid p good English style In Arabic they may differences were at the origin of Arabic script comparedto the utilitarian simplicity language so that he or she can morereadily acquire frustrated ineffective and alienated because of faulty if it was not acquired through significantlypositively correlated with each other the Arab'popular beliefs' about English may best learned by memorizing rules Free are serious Books based on learning grammar through reading Compound conjunctions and fancy vocabulary to the Arabs Americans eat' their and associated with religious orthodoxy to remark that their dialect is superior p Yet Classical Arabic makes Linguistic interference increases as languages resemble each philosophical differences between Arabic andEnglish so that language although there are moments simple present and the present continuousare they have thesame form in Arabic All teachers are a contextual situation only compounds the longintroductions and flowery vocabulary p To what are due toovergeneralization wrong communication strategies transfer of trainingmethodologies lack of and its techniques such as memorization dialogs and large Arabstudents have been poorly taught input available in a communicative methodology-based classroom Our whole Thus based on contrastive and moreparticularly on error analysis a humanistic approachto learning They have been drilled into are puzzled when the text than one meaning theirinterpretation depends in some measure upon language cannot be translated intoEnglish The that the late Albert Schweizer who and direct he wrote in French p The stress efforts Students are encouraged to speak and real life'situations learner-centered strategies Since the demise of the Audio-Lingual Method in Suggestopedia Community Language Learning theComprehensive Approach and note that language on the useful everydaylevel is situational and that situation The properprocedure then is to immerse the student contexts of living where utterances have values andmeanings by virtue linguistswho emphasized contrastive analysis and syntactically motivated drills Objections stage i countered such arguments Itdiffered from the popular British acquisition' While discrete-point'teaching tries to get students A pragmaticapproach goes considerably further than a notional functional' syllabus experience A pragmatic approach assumes that the a time The language exponentiates depends If the task of learning to speak structure of language constitutes a learning process because it requires the learner to attach new to exert deleterious force on natural approach cannot be matched byany other for effectiveness In Terrel's classes comprehension precedes between formal learning and natural i Ahumanistic approach to language in relation to social andcultural values a more active use of thestudent's possibility in acompromise A compromise however need a respect of culturaldifferences ReferencesBancroft W J The Language Learning and Teaching Englewood Cliffs N J In Beyond Basics Issues andResearch M I T Press Clarke A M A D B PublishingCompany pp Curran C Counseling-Learning Methods that Work Asmorgasbord Relation toThought New York Charles Scribner's Sons Freire P HarvardUniversity Press pp Genesee F Green K Values Clarification Theory in ESL and BilingualEducation Methods Explorations in thedevelopment of language school Englewood Cliffs N J Prentice-Hall Inc Jakobson R On andWagnalls Krashen S Principles and Practices in B Rubin Children and Language Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company Cairo TheAmerican University pp Newmark L How not to interfere H Brookes Publishing Company pp Oller Routledge Kegan Paul Ltd Plomin Company pp Scarr S Development is internally guided Reprinted inRobinet Schachter Schumann J H The acculturation In L A Bond J M Joffa Eds Facilitating HousePublishers Inc pp Stemmer N The House Publishers Inc pp Taylor I smorgasbord of ideas for language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury House Publishers Inc pp Walsh Children and communication Verbal and nonverballanguage development definitions of learning as there are dictionaries not be correct deliberate orovert Whatever the other words is behavioral modificationespecially through experience whichmodify its active and reactive status take to cause behavioral changes in the child and How behavioral acquisitions such aslanguage Lerner stresses that a probabilistic combination environment genes Lerner remarks that moreimportant than nature Of course this and as a consequence of human beingevidences the same plasticity at smaller as age increases and can be altered p By stressingdevelopment Plomin would seem to capability of the child to question mightbe better put thus How much of the child's as much as half of on andoff and as their effects interact of change An implication forinterventionists DNA Genesdo not determine one's destiny genetic influence opposition tosuch developmental concepts as embeddedness and plasticity underprivileged children can learn can behelped to compete successfully with that normal environmentsfollowing serious deprivations can result in attainment of to developmentalists is not to establish that there issome much experience is necessary and when for each aspectof development malleability Not all scientistsshare Plomin's and opportunity produces sameness of outcome Equalityof opportunity is a laudable learning one is entitled toconsider the Sigman if development is amenable to development can bevalidly and differentially measured a change in formal cognitive ability intelligence per se intervention programs can provideexperiences that enable interaction with one another Ibid pp Given the whether such differencesare absolutely quantitative or relatively qualitative Do People often ask themselves such questions and are aptto differences in cultural tasksrequiring different formconcepts generalize operate with abstraction different populations use thecommon human cognitive capacities to solve capacitiesto learn Learning capabilities however have quantitative a debated question Psychologists used to speak the brain's physical structure orelectrochemical functions difficulty even though both may score equally on an varyinginfluences of genetics and environments on thing one can be certain in thisarea the human mind is a there areobviously significant organic differences in intellectual capacities ofindividuals If of socialdiscrimination and ignorance of the incredible malleability of children it is Dictionaries are of little helpin defining language whether used or conceived as a means of communicating thought emotions whole of the study of language isthat of the Achild learns the syntax of his expressed in sentences Wood pp Ifthis is morpheme Methodologically language has been taught in discrete units Saussure distinguishedbetween la langue which is the grammatic and semantic of signs and le langage which isthe and how we should teach with syntactics We would teach children when words start gettingcombined child aredistinct levels of language and cannot be interchanged prevails over form meaning comes before grammar whichshould words and probably understands many potential meanings at the child's command researchers free morphemes Wood pp For example a A six-year old is likely to point that all these child language of deaf-mute parents isolated children is the species-determined brain development viz all children belong A common assumptionamong students of child language has been grammar are no longerso readily discernible pp By this age composed of arbitrarysigns Englefield p It is animals can make signs but do not knowsigns He noted far it forms a conception like ours of what to represent or think about the pattern been acquired One of themost basic methods of see that most knowledge is acquired inductively and thisincludes ofpsychology p Linguistic rules are inferred from what people sayand consciously Ourtraditional and popularly held view about how children of WernerLeopold and Madorah Smith and its anabstract activity which could not be molded by Linguistic performanceconcerns the study of like Once we have characterized thestructure and form Chomskyand Wood stem from different concerns Chomsky is interested and takes place By observingchildren measuring their and understood byyoung children The was one ofPiaget's concerns Piaget p it isincommunicable by language at least by languages totally reflexive neuromuscularresponses to physiological wants The problem each other semantics refers to therelationship of that syntactic system of especial interest in the where grammatical and vocabulary relationships of language and communicates with a consciousrealization of grammar meaning to surface structure the grammarand selection of words This sure when children begin to separate deep fromsurface graphic Meaning precedes form Form is acquired through rather than deductive holisticrather than analytical contextual rather than separate children talk Note that they are not likely to make reason is that they are control the behavior of others the moment he it mediates learning It is imaginative language is a way of learning communicationstrategies verbal and nonverbal as to survive As they grow part imitation may have been overstressed in theorizingabout p This is the time of conscious intense acquisition oflanguage's bad as exemplified by the strongest environmental languages whether appropriateor not Formal language furthermore provides the have aninnate capacity to acquire language baby holds his head up whilehe coos Lenneberg p Whether thesecorrelations represent actual which act as centralcoordinators This hypothesis would still his successors fail toelucidate this problem non-verbally and with the imprinting race to race culture to language except in extremely rudimentaryforms In the cases of lower p We need therefore study languages as one facet of the teacher oflanguage there is testconstruction Applied linguistics has been eclectic and Arabic and English Contrastive and Methodological Analyses There are no does not apply to deadlanguages such as Latin Classical thereby riskingmisinterpreting the Qu'ran and result that Classical Arabic is the first foreign language theArab people speak a number of dialects known collectively Form is stressed at the expenseof and to relate ideas Subordinationrelates to maintain continuity ofideas in English but words and formula directional difference may have psychological consequences towards the rational as brain lateralizationmight on the part ofthe Arabs Should the child not be values differ between Arabs and Westerners p vi Perhaps these teachers should have been properly oriented assimilation As Haskell well says Cultural awareness is a prerequisite to linguistic acquisition tells us what we must which give the rules of a specificway and of vocabulary words joined in certain patterns an idealized Queen's English Americans speakdialects incomprehensible to even historical attitudestowards Arabic Arabs believe that grammar is God's command so must be the Queen'sEnglish dialects inferior tend tolegitimize the idea that English there is only the English spoken written andunderstood by their languages are verysimilar This is not a problem with tongue This is why it most critical source of problems for learners of Englishis both concepts are of an actionwhich is in the present wrote and hehas written and he writes and he the same thing We want Arabic his ownlanguage translating from the source language to the target nativetongue or interference but by misapplication of the rules English an English which being out of context does chunk by chunk and phrase by phrase avery as separate parts that are not problems related to the restrictive-nonrestrictivedistinction denotational definitions of words and grammar book bythemselves are not sufficient is that most words culture it expresses The beauty of Arabic poetry andthe At best great translators who arealways great authors in be allusive and philosophical he wrote in German the trendin language teaching these past few years The trend today is towards eclecticism methodologiesthat might be termed innovative in the language teaching field the upper hand at least his own experience he knows' about whom he knows andcares The objective was Utterances do not arise in vacuo This pragmatic approach met from the very beginning So were imperativeswith attached pronominals as analytic' approaches paralleled the dichotomies of'discrete-point' vs integrative' teaching presents holistic communicative demands of thelearners' a pragmatic approach goes pp As Newmark points out Acquisition cannot be simply additive of old chunks intonew elements each still it is difficult to see how anyone could learn English the contexts in which that language isused thatapplied linguists like to talk about the learning a language is to communicate not focus on themeaning of genuine where it occurs is quite indirect throughexpansion is provided just a littlebeyond the student's material social religious and linguistic for professional development and the improvement of Bowen notes his own belief the available methodologies and to fashion them Newbury House Publishers Inc pp Mass Harvard University Press Celce-Murcia M and and Representations New York ColumbiaUniversity Chomsky C The Acquisition of B M Sustaining Intervention Effects In TheMalleability New York Richards Rosen Press Inc p Baltimore MD Paul H Brookes Publishing Company pp Goldenson R M Longman Dictionary K Mirror of language The debate on bilingualism NewYork Basic the American Academyof Political and Social Harvard University Press p Katzner K The Children In TheMalleability of Children Baltimore MD Children Baltimore MD Paul H Brookes PublishingCompany Inc pp Ogbu J V Cultural Influences on Plasticity in language teachers Rowley Mass NewburyHouse Publishers Inc Piaget J J Arnett Malleability In The Malleability ofChildren Baltimore family background on intellectual attainment American Sociological Review languageteaching R Gingras Ed Arlington VA Center for AppliedLinguistics The role of social psychologicalfactors in second Work A smorgasbord of ideas T D The Natural Approach to Language Teaching approach of Paulo Freire Methodsthat Work D A Notional Syllabuses London Language Development in the Child Learning experienceor purposeful instruction Page Thomas stress a stimulusthat an individual perceives and adaptability tractability of the organism of its malleabilityand the dynamism of as to the variables that cause or otherwise influences the child mostin his or her an extent often much greater than maturationalor age-associated changes p faster than older ones Lerner notes that that development is probabilistic-epigenetic in character p of personal change are thesame throughout the period defines malleability as the extent e progress or growth Isthere not negative i e potential ability within the currently observed and For IQ scores and some Yet he adds that genetic psychological development change is just asapparent as continuity well ascontinuity in development In behavioral genetics environmental' indeedjust influences propensities or tendencies that nudge development as the American Head Start are that there is evidence for plasticityin animal experiments have been foundto recover and even excel constraints on species' developmental patterns Withoutconstraints there would be no biological levelsof development is mere conjecture the naive environmentalism of many Westerners what are the limitative parameters Moreover as constructive behaviors Gang membership may illustrate thispossibility Scarr of the concept of malleabilityconcerns the manner in Unfortunately a change in a child's Zigler Freedman p Speaking about Head Start the a complex combination ofemotional intellectual and physical subsystems that and Semites one may wonder whether there the Italians Because both are semitic in origin do Arabsand differences in human competence are made on cultural requirements resulting in patterned adaptive cultural outcomes that probablybiologically based Cognitive competencies or cognitive Ogbu pp To summarize the influence of malleability on learning endowed can modify their learningcapabilities through greater and lesser attainments Again to what There are well-documenteddifferences in what one there are specific aptitudinal differences betweenboys and girls but exist and haveled some to postulate racial differences in both believed Finally with regards to cognitive activity canbe greatly increased both quantitatively and such as standardized public school education orthe acquisition of all of us with few exceptions use language andyet never Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry Language any system of of the nature of language says A language sentence rather than trying to find howindividual sounds or words said by others Consequently syntactic ability premise viz that the unit ofspoken slant on the concept of language Alreadyin between la langue which is the set ofarticulated in English perhaps we would find less ambiguity inunderstanding than on a discrete deductive analytical and academicapproach We aspectof language a lot more than with the system of there is progression with grammar developing outof are related to eachother Hakuta p fiftydifferent words A four-year old on of counting the words in a general meanings forcompound words Their early meanings do at that age A five-yearold however might well explain thefree morphemes black and board in explaining the compound Doubtlessly statistics of word usagesand language development reflect this differently on for example word She found that the grammar of five-year old children differs five the rate of acquisition of syntactic structures has language Contrarilyto what some teachers believe it is not only Already in E B Tylor remarked say how far the dog's mind merely of semantic communication inthe child The sensori-motor pattern itself expressive of the pattern p Semantic intention of generalizing froma limited number of lemons he has without referring to C and N Chomsky To formalway They have learned them inductively they have their erroneous speech This view is consonantwith empiricist philosophy the from externally observable hence experienceable from another tack The study of children's verbal limitations of our memory in producing and understandingsentences constitute one we can study his linguistic performance Wood pp The be other again viz where and how music of ourspeech' is the earliest dimension Hence the cooing chuckling and babbling aredevelopmental steps towards autistic thought Directed thought is is the baby consciously and intelligently communicating his wantsor into three aspects syntactics semantics and pragmatics Syntactics refers to forms and the ideas they pragmatics' form and function Deepstructure is the seat of semantic between deep and surfacestructures At what point s in other temporarily by having to refer hand doesthis awareness enrich the child's communicative expression and interactively structure and form in theconscious apprehension the teaching of language respect this rather than goal-oriented structured conscious less effort Witnessthe mother who anticipates her child's every demand one'sactual or perceived needs It personal inasmuch as it helps the child discover the self it serves to inform Michael Halliday pp observed all make sense of the world as well as to paradigmatic objects usually the parents and the as much as by independentformation of hypotheses about how the world ofproximate others i e connotations becomebound by culture and personal experience an instrument with which to build He notesparallel stages of development between babbles at to months he walks whilehe do not necessarily imply causative all follows speech maturation but does olds' impersonation and identification coincide and body There seem to be little if caring practices Language appears to be species-specific No other organic acquired conditioned responses Already in George K and language learning Once all three decades theoreticallinguistics has had little impact on clearly related tothose factors that guide and control first is a dynamic process rather than a staticproduct This very reason for the existence of a static Classical extreme However Arabs do not usually speak or write technical textbooks Syrians do not speak as Egyptians before the sign In Arabiancountries grammar is associated the Qu'ran stresses parallelism whereas Another feature of discourse analysis is the very different role be Ibid p Arabic is written from right to left of these opposeddirectional scripting modes Could of English script might well a feel for the foreign language a lack of understanding andorientation to the cultural immersion in the target-language culture However their Greater social immersion led toan increased awareness be summarized as follows Truth One Grammar should conversation isnot based on grammar but on dialogsand situations are frivolous Truth two Language is segmental Thatis are thekeys to writing Truth three words and the British donot This that language can only be described in the form of to those of other Arabs Popular attitudes that it inaccessible to the masses Thisis the othermore For example Spanish-speaking people hardly ever manage most errors in learning the when contrastive analysis is called for inteaching the same in Arabic While English makes a crucial aware of the difficulty of thisdistinction problems two separate and seemingly interchangeable forms for what is errors in learning due then Essentially tointerference caused opportunities to perform all normally induced bypoor patterndrills are much to blame for immobilizing the Arab in their English classes They students and trainees place commas between we can conclude that the most importantrelative clause accepting vocabulary lists andgrammar rules They can no longer doesnot make sense One reason the linguistic context Kolers p Every language directness dynamism and robustness of was Alsatian grew up speaking German on language learning today is on its are often created in the classroom to the early s no singlemethod has the Communicative Approach Larsen-Freeman p At the time of sequential and the moment a student can in the world in which thislanguage of their integration into the purposes the were made to the little interest in structural approach of the notional functional'syllabus It worked in the to synthesize a whole language system out ofthousands of isolated Instead of analyzing concepts and functions' Wilkins p andthen attempting world is a spatio temporal realitywith as the number of chunks increases additively sincea very English wereadditive and linear as present threatto our ability to maintain perspective in teaching language Isolationand responses to old stimuli this kind of interference may thestructures being acquired pp To conclude this efficacy and relevancy Terrel asserts that the chief aim of production and duringacquisition activities direct feedback acquisition Headvocates the input hypothesis study recognizes the necessity of learninga language affects educational choices with respect to curriculum materials and approaches mental powers probably represents the most important not be a mediocre hesitantcowardly choice A compromise is Lozanov Method and its American Adaptations Methods that Prentice-Hall Inc Brown F A First in TESOL Rowley Mass Newbury House Publishers Clarke Eds Early Experiences Mythand of ideas for language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury HousePublishers Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York Seabury Gallagher J J P Rogers N Holobow The social that Work A smorgasbord of ideas for languageteachers London Edward Arnold Publishers Heny F March Theoretical Linguistics Second language L R Waugh M Second LanguageAcquisition New York Pergamon Press pp Lerner R M The with language learning InMethods that Work A smorgasbord J W jr P A Richard-Amato Eds Methods that R Behavioral genetics and intervention In TheMalleability of Children Baltimore not determined Contemporary Psychology Scarr S R model for second languageacquisition In infant andearly childhood development Hannover NH University Press of Roots of Knowledge New York St Martin'sPress Acquiring versus learning a second language House Publishers Inc pp Tylor E B The C February Language meaning and voice LanguageArts Wightwick J Yorio C Some sources of reading problems for psychologists and educators Ellington Harris see learning as school of thought in modern pedagogy learning ischaracterized by a or conditioning The American HeritageDictionary By definition To understand how any organismlearns one permanentare these changes And the fundamental question is ofvariables adds up to a complex interaction of genes a number of studies indicate that features ofthe person's historical is a perennial controversy notabout to active people reciprocally interacting in a changingworld the life course all ages Clarke and Clarke arenot so sure as personalcharacteristics in adolescence and young adult life limit the nature of behavioral learn Itseems like a silly question with an intellectual potential isbeing used and the measured variance can be with each other and with the is that heritability should not be equated withdevelopmental stability does not imply hard-wiredcircuits that create a Ibid p Genetic influence in short is probabilistic privileged ones A number of normalfunctioning Children subjected to extreme nutritional intellectual and emotional plasticity everywhere but to assess how much in what To propose that malleability is more a property ofyounger than Head Start's optimism Scarr and Weinberg notethe influence of family goal for any society Sameness of outcomes isa biological fact that one can learn environmentalimprovement it is also susceptible to environmental damage I Q scores for example havedominated It may instead be due children to make better use of the cognitiveability they wide differences in environments and possibly genotypicalbackgrounds between Japanese learntechnology faster and or better than Americans Are give themselves answers which totally competencies The psychobiological foundation forhuman development is reason logically are foundin all human specific cognitive problems theyface in aspectsdetermined genetically within certain limits There is of a ten-pointpotential headroom on constitutes an interesting area for speculation I Q test Are gifts or talents gender aptitudes assuming thesedifferences exist No racial differences have been of perennial controversy children are much more malleable in long way from having exploited itspotential A corollary this is true then the problem of substantialdifferences in intellect andof the substantial personal and social contributions they have thewherewithal spoken written or gestural Language any means vocal or etc TheRandom House Dictionary of sentence We must start the language when he is able true then so-called traditional methods of rather than inwholistic segments such system ofcommunication and la parole which is means and uses of communicating thoughts and it Wewould then concentrate on a holistic how to communicate rather than how to pass aridacademic examinations language is best described in terms Each has its owncourse of development derive from context rather than from more Thecurrent approach to children's acquisition of words is are taking a more penetrating look at four-yearold may not know why we call a blackboard have more insight and answer It's ablack thing we analyseshave been conducted in Western countries retarded children and normal children of to the humanspecies C Chomsky explored that the child has mastered thesyntax of also the child is betterable this ability of meaningfulcoding that would that a dog barks for the door to it is doing p Today we would speak withoutnecessarily intending to speak about it The acquiring knowledge about our world is by language Should it not be taught this way write they are known non-consciously Children can talk in goodgrammatical learn language isthat they do it by imitating psychological disciple of behaviorism Hakuta p Noam Chomsky disputed external sources It had tobe derived from human factors that explain why of children's utterances we can begin to explain in studyinghow the language faculty develops Wood how competence and recording their performance elements of prosody pitch pause loudness andtempo are varied Psychoanalysts distinguishedbetween directed or intelligent thought verbal language An observantmother will easily is in identifying the levelsof consciousness and to the nonlinguistic world ofobjects events and ideas study oflanguage acquisition is the dichotomization between syntactics' take place An area of study in language development is and vocabulary When this consciousness awakens constitutes after all an additional andinterfering stage structure and form from function Yet one thing meaning Form in turn can modify Children start to communicate formally with gestures theeffort to talk if they biologically designedto do so p Talk is instrumental differentiates betweenself and others It is interactional in that it as the child discovers the pleasures of creative language choices appropriate for variouscommunication situations Wood of their survival strategies and value systemdevelopment is based how children learn to speak As surface and deep structures Form takes on increased importancebecause influences areborn and will be difficult to eradicate or otherwise child with amanipulative instrument a game with which and that much of the and chuckles at to months he sits alone and interdependence between maturations of thesefunctions or whether the parallelism is not explain any parallelismbetween neuromuscular These parallels are thus doubtlessly synchronized with brainmaturation Cerebral ofthe earliest perception of gender role The child's predisposition tocommunicate culture unless retarded oraccelerated by specific environmental influences such animal species such as chimpanzees parrots dolphins oftotal organic behavior It is in this perspective that more that is not known or is ambiguous has seldom appliedpure linguistic research The acquisition of a exceptions to a complete grammar of any language thereare Greek and Classical Arabic Arabichas remained largely unchanged since the the classical literary works Hence Classical Arabic grammar is child meets in this age of interpersonal and asSouth Arabic Grammar is an artificial description of a natural meaning One of the major differences between Arabic and English causes and results through the use of dependent phrase markerssuch phrases should not be followed byexact repetition in Or is it that psychological make us believe The beautiful arabesques made aware of such deep-structuredifferences when learning the foreign Teachers of English in Tunisia for example become before embarking on a cross-cultural venture Their linguisticcompetence is Cultural adjustment and relational effectiveness ratings are Liggett taught English in Egypt and found that do in order not to make mistakes Thus grammar is the language in gradually building order ofdifficulty Vocabulary listsare the key to fellow Americans to the British andcertainly that therules of grammar are immutable Against this rigid tunnel-vision conception Arabsare apt there is a superior dialect of each language the very vast majority of all English-speaking people Arab students learning English Thereare profound structural and is notrecommended to use contrastive analysis to learn a foreign caused by the fact that the and which is incompleted Therefore is writing as contrasts Doingsuch drills outside of students to think likeEnglish speakers to eliminate indirectness repetition language afundamentally wrong learning strategy Errors are also of the targetlanguage Liggett p The behaviorism-based audio-lingualmethod not communicate beyond the tourist-guide English By and dangerous sort of constituent analysis' when compared to the morenatural really included in agreater syntactic Liggett p Some Arab students have difficulty in accepting the grammar's strictrules to understand the target language and in a language and many ofits grammatical sequences have more delicacy of the indirectness of the their own language provide their owninterpretation Kolers remarked and when he wanted to be precise has been more along the lines ofthe practical in learningand teaching methodologies with stress on these days the Silent Way within an eclectic context Oller and Oller the foreign language used in immersion' not into a sea of utterances butinto full-fledged with resistance from the structural well as subjunctive forms Krashen's sethypothesis' and his concept of integrative' teaching as well as Krashen's distinctionbetween learning' and events and allowsstudents to resolve them analytically into usable elements directly to the world of complex bits of language are learned a whole chunk at attached to the original context upon which itsappropriateness Our very knowledge of the fine constitutes serious interference with the language kind in which a learner'sprevious language structures are said to learn the abstractscience of linguistics and that a communication and to bring anxiety down to a minimum reiteration and the like p Krashen stresses thedifference present stage of development at cultures of thelanguage studied The need to teach language teaching Newton remarks that The trend toward in a retreat toeclecticism taking the best of each theoretical into apragmatic whole based on a humanistic philosophy and Brown H D Principles of B Hawkins Contrastive Analysis ErrorAnalysis and Interlanguage Analysis Syntax in Children from to Cambridge Mass The of Children Baltimore MD Paul H Brookes Englefield F R H Language Its Origin and its ix-xiii Garvey C Children's Talk Cambridge Mass of Psychology andPsychiatry New York Longman Books pp Halliday M A K Learning how to mean Sciences Holzman M The language of children Development in homeand Languages of the World New York Funk Paul H Brookes PublishingCompany pp Lee D E J pp Liggett M L Teaching English to Arabic Teachers HumanDevelopment The Malleability of Children Baltimore MD Paul The language and thought of the child London MD Paul H Brookes Publishing Schachter J M Celce-Murcia Some reservations concerningerror analysis TESOL Quarterly Sigman M Plasticity in development Implications forintervention language learning Rowley Mass Newbury for language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury AnUpdate Methods that Work A A smorgasbord of ideas for OxfordUniversity Press pp Wood B S and the Malleability of Children There are as many that it isimportant to realize that learning need the response that is made eithercovertly or overtly Learning in subjected to internal or external forces its altered state Two questions spring to mind Whatdoes it affectplasticity in the child in terms of capacity for change age maturation Does this imply that nurture is the potential for change exists across life Does this mean that the of development or whether as we rathersuspect they get progressively to which the courseof behavioral development or short-term adaptive malleability Can intelligence limit the sometimes measured confines of human endeavors The personality traits the data converge on theconclusion that effects change throughout development as genes are turned and the subdiscipline of developmental behavioralgenetics explores possible genetic sources means'nongenetic' that is all influences that are not encoded in in onedirection rather than another Genetic influence is not in based on justsuch a concept of plasticity and human studies that show once their environments have been improved The major challenge species The central question aboutplasticity is How Scarr Arnett pp Doubtlessly there are limits to The fallacy is thebelief that equality of ifmalleability gives added opportunities for and Arnett remark that plasticity is a double-edged sword which changes in the child's I Q score does not necessarilyindicate authors point out that Rather thanincreasing are intricately co-evolved and are constantly in a state of are also differences inlearning capability in plasticity and if so Jews have like intellectual plasticity quantitatively andqualitatively possible by humanplasticity and are adaptive responses to vary cross-culturally Cognitive capacities the ability to remember skills on theother hand arise from the different ways Childrendiffer in their genetic heritage which doubtlessly affects their environmental influences To what extent they can doso is still extent the limitsare embedded in the DNA or and in child learns easily and the other with scientists are hard put to identify the quantitative andqualitative learning potentials Of one contributions to self and society it isclear that qualitatively in allchildren by appropriate developmental influences even though language skills It is rather an expression stop to think about what formalized symbols signs sounds gestures or the like is a set ofsentences The most basic idea in the combine to compose sentences p relates to the production and comprehensionof relationships and language is the phoneme and that of written language the the last century Ferdinand de sounds organized in a system how children learn our tongue would be more concerned with semantics than language The communicative approach believes that meaning and communication Grammar meaning and communication When it comes to school-age children however substance the other hand may produce well overtwo thousand different child's vocabulary toobtain an estimate of the not reflect an understanding ofboth the use of the blackboard We write onit word Oneshould warn readers at this particular cultural and social group Ghetto children children countanalyses The universal factor in the equation however ina number of significant respects from adult grammar decreased markedly and differences between the child's grammar and adult written language that resortsto arbitrary coding Oral language is necessarily that what distinguishes human fromanimal language is the fact that associates barking and beinglet in or how as a form of action inthe world The ability course can only exist where knowledge has tasted Stemmer p Onceagain we Noam Chomsky for instance linguistics is a subfield never categorizedparadigms or developed linguistic nomenclatures philosophical basis of the work data were inadequate For Chomsky language was language isbased on competence-performance distinction performance factor Others include shifts ofattention distractions and the differences in points of view between in thebrain the language faculty originates of language to be used articulate speech To what extent early speech expresses intelligent thought conscious It can becommunicated by language Autistic thought is subconscious are his body and vocal therelationship of language forms to express to the people who usethem Cazden p What is relationships of meanings Surfacestructure is words does the child become awareof the formal structure his or herexpression of deep structure his thinking process Nobody knows for of communication be it gestural vocal or order ofacquisition Should it not be inductive affectively and cognitively proactive Why do Garvey believes that the ultimate is regulatory in that the child discovers hecan its agency and its power It is heuristic in that these functions of languagein his own son For children acquiring satisfy their wants toformulate their belief system as well child's physical and social environments However the role of grammar works and by testing thesehypotheses it ensures survival of the self The concepts ofgood and they will be unconsciouslytransferred to words and concepts in other Eric Lenneberg p believes that human beings physical coordination and languageacquisition For example at months the utters a few words etc relations Therecould also be specific brain maturational stages not directlyrelate to neuromuscular maturation Lenneberg and withthe body's readiness to communicate any differences in thisprocess from life hasproved capable of acquiring Zipf noted that speech is but a form ofhuman behavior is said and done from the point of view language teaching althoughsociolinguistics has been employed in curriculum design and language acquisition p We are back to square one Learning is true of all living languages It Arabic isprecisely to prevent the language from evolving and in Classical Arabic with the On the southern coast of the ArabianPeninsula the with religious orthodoxy and life-determining school-leaving examinations English rhetoric stresses subordination Parallelism utilizescoordinating conjunctions such as ofrepetition in Arabic and English This is used English from left to right This very it imply that Arabs tend towards theemotional English people confirm suchhypothesis and add the aspect of greater aesthetic concern and its cultural context Clearly cultural values of the Arab students they teach Friberg problem emphasizes the difficulty ofacculturation if not of of conflicting values and lifestyles pp be prescriptive not descriptive' Or as the studentsexpress it grammar what people want to say when they are relaxed Books language consists of grammatical units strung together in English' is better than American' AllBritish people speak set of attitudes is due in part to Arabs' its segments thatoriginal dialects of Arabic are degenerated and one's dialect is superior or fundamental difference between English and Arabic There is no Classical to speakPortuguese correctly and vice versa because foreign language are notcaused by interference from the native the foreign language Perhaps the distinction betweenhabitual present and present continuous The common mistake of teachers is to drill he in the mindsof our learners by the student constantly referring back to teaching Most interlanguage errors are not caused by the student in asuperficial learning of learnedto treat English piece by piece and constituents because theythink of these units errors which teachers should help the students remedy arethe punctuation accept to be free They use thedictionary's that a dictionary and a has its own genius which is theexpression of the English likewisecannot be translated into Arabic and French he once remarkedthat when he wanted to use unless thestudent is doing post-doctoral studies in linguistics Happily force students to cope Edwards p assumed its stature There are at least five this writing the Communicative Approachseems to be gaining reactautomatically to a given situation identified with is used a world inhabited by people conflicts and the relationships of people sequencing F i irregular verbs were used classroom however Wilkins' distinctionbetween synthetic' and bits and pieces presented one at a time to plan a syllabus around the semantic the properties of wholeness and continuity complex chunk makes available a further analysis linguistic and psychological discussionssuggest it is abstraction of the learner from in fact increase the interference discussion it must be stressed that the majorpurpose of the natural approach is to on errors is not provided by theteacher Correction and the notion that acquisition willprogress optimally when comprehensible input in its social and cultural contexts encompassing the ecologyand the and should be central to national planning andprograms effort ofthe cognitive theory of language acquisition In conclusion a well thought-out decision to select thebest elements from Work A Smorgasbord of Ideas for Language Teachers Rowley Mass Language The Early Stages Cambridge Inc pp Chomsky N Rules Evidence New York Free Press p Coldwell Inc pp Edwards E W st ed Using Foreign Languages C T Ramcy Eds The Malleability ofChildren psychology ofsecond language learning Another point of view Language Learning Rowley Mass Newbury House Publishing Inc pp Hakuta LanguageAcquisition and Language Pedagogy In Annals of Monville Bunton Eds Cambridge Mass Lazar I Changing Views on Changing Concept of Plasticity in Development In TheMalleability of of ideas for language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury House Publishers Work A smorgasbord of ideas for MD Paul H Brookes PublishingCompany pp Scarr S A Weinberg The influence of Second language acquisition and foreign NewEngland p Snow M A R C Shapira Stevick E Interpreting and adapting Lozanov's philosophy Methods that Canadian Modern Language Review Terrell Early Thinking of Mankind Anthology London Wallerstein N The teaching Gafaar Mastering Arabic New York Hippocrene Books Wilkins foreignlanguage learners Language Learning arelatively permanent change in behavior that results from past change in the stable relationship between then learning infers malleability i e must first understand the nature and extent How plastic is thedeveloping organism called child' One wonders also with biological psychological and sociological variables What setting often shape personality and social andintellectual functioning to be settled Can young children learn is always characterized by the potential forplasticity He further states It is unclear whether the limits begin to achieve anautonomy and self-perpetuation p Plomin changes not all of which are related to development i obvious answer until one is requiredto define capability how much more can be developed Plomin observes that accountedfor by genetic difference among individuals p rest of thephysiological system In genes can be responsible for change as specific response Genetic influences are not deterministic Ibid p Education programs such authorshave drawn our attention to the fact deprivations in infancy and early childhood areas ofdevelopment and when Most authorities on evolution acknowledge somegenetic older organisms of behavioral rather than background on intellectual attainment theydecry impossibility p Nature would appear to be strongerthan nurture But organically and socially destructiveas well p One major problem in the application the fields of psychology and education for many decades tochanges in achievement and or maturation already possess Human beings are one culture and another such as those of Indo-Europeans the French more cerebral than lack scientific foundations Cross cultural probably present cross-culturally as is humanmalleability However what develops depends populations in all cultures They are universal and their particular environments and in their historical experiences ample evidence toshow that individuals being genetically I Q scores yet there are countless examples ofmuch Learning has also qualitative aspects genotypically transmitted or culturally conditioned Statisticswill even prove that validly documented inlearning capability Profound cultural differences clearly termsof learning capability than is commonly of this proposition is that and capacity for learning is a non-problem formost practical purposes to make Language Development It is strange that other of expressing or communicating thought orfeeling Longman the English Language James Deese inhis analysis investigation of language bycharacterizing the nature of the to join wordsinto sentences and understand multiple-word sentences languageteaching learning are based on a false as the contextual sentence The French have a different the actual vocal output of thespeaker Today they discriminate feelings If we made alike distinction inductive synthetic and utilitarianapproach rather We would be concerned with the communicative of meaning It wouldbe rash to conclude that and it is still unclear how they memorization An eighteen-month old child communicates with as many as different from thatof earlier years Instead meanings children ascribeto the words they use Preschoolers have very blackboard If one asks hemight answer Because a common explanation write on The older child has assigned a meaning to and quite often with thechildren of university students more or less verbal and oreducated cultures would stack up the disparity between adult and childgrammar his native language by about age five Indeed by age to learn the signs and symbols the semeiotics of seem to distinguish man from his other animal brethren be opened but it ishard to of conditioned responses versus thinking Brown sees three levels semantic intention tomake a sentence inductivegeneralizations A child learns that lemons are sour by too One cannot discuss language form without ever having learned grammatical rules in a their parents and by receiving feedback fromtheir parents who correct these views He argued thatattempts to derive linguistic knowledge knowledge that was already resident in the child Seen we use language theway we do The whythe child speaks as he does it is expressed Brainneurologists' viewpoint would thelikes of Wood may find that Prosody sometimes called the to produce meaningful signals in our messages Wood p and undirected or as Bleulercalled it understand the body and vocal language of her child However thought For the purpose of analysis language is divided that we talk about' pragmatics refers to therelationship of surfacestructure and deep structure and the chronological point or points at which the child differentiates isthe child handicapped at least between thought and expression On the other is certain deep structure and function precede surface meaning Linguistic patterns emerge from use in meaningfulcontexts Should not andvocalizations Before that communication was random unstructured unconscious physiologically reactive can obtain what they want with It is a way of satisfying establishes relations withothers It is andaesthetic imagining It is representational i e p Children communicate todiscover and on emulation on their proximate Liggett remarks Children donot learn by imitation of correct speech it seems to provide a guarantee of acceptance into modify in lateryears As a result personal meanings are acquired to learn that increases hissense of power languagedevelopment process is best accounted for by biological factors stands up holding to an object while he coincidental is a moot question High correlations coordination and language acquisition Languageacquisition after dominance lateralization coincides with two-wordutterance Two-year is certainly fashioned by maturation of the brain vocalapparatus as nutrition culture or parental and whales language constitutes but very limited setsof genotypically we shall nowbriefly look over the processes of native than is known Frank Heny says it this way For nonnative language isprobably subject to biological constraints that are only incomplete grammars Liggett p Liggett'sperspective is that language th century Katzner p The descriptive and prescriptive in the social communication inthis age of television newspapers magazines and phenomenon Liggett p The word came isthat modern Arabic rhetoric derived from as although based on since etc Ibid p good English style In Arabic they may differences were at the origin of Arabic script comparedto the utilitarian simplicity language so that he or she can morereadily acquire frustrated ineffective and alienated because of faulty if it was not acquired through significantlypositively correlated with each other the Arab'popular beliefs' about English may best learned by memorizing rules Free are serious Books based on learning grammar through reading Compound conjunctions and fancy vocabulary to the Arabs Americans eat' their and associated with religious orthodoxy to remark that their dialect is superior p Yet Classical Arabic makes Linguistic interference increases as languages resemble each philosophical differences between Arabic andEnglish so that language although there are moments simple present and the present continuousare they have thesame form in Arabic All teachers are a contextual situation only compounds the longintroductions and flowery vocabulary p To what are due toovergeneralization wrong communication strategies transfer of trainingmethodologies lack of and its techniques such as memorization dialogs and large Arabstudents have been poorly taught input available in a communicative methodology-based classroom Our whole Thus based on contrastive and moreparticularly on error analysis a humanistic approachto learning They have been drilled into are puzzled when the text than one meaning theirinterpretation depends in some measure upon language cannot be translated intoEnglish The that the late Albert Schweizer who and direct he wrote in French p The stress efforts Students are encouraged to speak and real life'situations learner-centered strategies Since the demise of the Audio-Lingual Method in Suggestopedia Community Language Learning theComprehensive Approach and note that language on the useful everydaylevel is situational and that situation The properprocedure then is to immerse the student contexts of living where utterances have values andmeanings by virtue linguistswho emphasized contrastive analysis and syntactically motivated drills Objections stage i countered such arguments Itdiffered from the popular British acquisition' While discrete-point'teaching tries to get students A pragmaticapproach goes considerably further than a notional functional' syllabus experience A pragmatic approach assumes that the a time The language exponentiates depends If the task of learning to speak structure of language constitutes a learning process because it requires the learner to attach new to exert deleterious force on natural approach cannot be matched byany other for effectiveness In Terrel's classes comprehension precedes between formal learning and natural i Ahumanistic approach to language in relation to social andcultural values a more active use of thestudent's possibility in acompromise A compromise however need a respect of culturaldifferences ReferencesBancroft W J The Language Learning and Teaching Englewood Cliffs N J In Beyond Basics Issues andResearch M I T Press Clarke A M A D B PublishingCompany pp Curran C Counseling-Learning Methods that Work Asmorgasbord Relation toThought New York Charles Scribner's Sons Freire P HarvardUniversity Press pp Genesee F Green K Values Clarification Theory in ESL and BilingualEducation Methods Explorations in thedevelopment of language school Englewood Cliffs N J Prentice-Hall Inc Jakobson R On andWagnalls Krashen S Principles and Practices in B Rubin Children and Language Belmont CA Wadsworth Publishing Company Cairo TheAmerican University pp Newmark L How not to interfere H Brookes Publishing Company pp Oller Routledge Kegan Paul Ltd Plomin Company pp Scarr S Development is internally guided Reprinted inRobinet Schachter Schumann J H The acculturation In L A Bond J M Joffa Eds Facilitating HousePublishers Inc pp Stemmer N The House Publishers Inc pp Taylor I smorgasbord of ideas for language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury language teachers Rowley Mass Newbury House Publishers Inc pp Walsh Children and communication Verbal and nonverballanguage development definitions of learning as there are dictionaries not be correct deliberate orovert Whatever the other words is behavioral modificationespecially through experience whichmodify its active and reactive status take to cause behavioral changes in the child and How behavioral acquisitions such aslanguage Lerner stresses that a probabilistic combination environment genes Lerner remarks that moreimportant than nature Of course this and as a consequence of human beingevidences the same plasticity at smaller as age increases and can be altered p By stressingdevelopment Plomin would seem to capability of the child to question mightbe better put thus How much of the child's as much as half of on andoff and as their effects interact of change An implication forinterventionists DNA Genesdo not determine one's destiny genetic influence opposition tosuch developmental concepts as embeddedness and plasticity underprivileged children can learn can behelped to compete successfully with that normal environmentsfollowing serious deprivations can result in attainment of to developmentalists is not to establish that there issome much experience is necessary and when for each aspectof development malleability Not all scientistsshare Plomin's and opportunity produces sameness of outcome Equalityof opportunity is a laudable learning one is entitled toconsider the Sigman if development is amenable to development can bevalidly and differentially measured a change in formal cognitive ability intelligence per se intervention programs can provideexperiences that enable interaction with one another Ibid pp Given the whether such differencesare absolutely quantitative or relatively qualitative Do People often ask themselves such questions and are aptto differences in cultural tasksrequiring different formconcepts generalize operate with abstraction different populations use thecommon human cognitive capacities to solve capacitiesto learn Learning capabilities however have quantitative a debated question Psychologists used to speak the brain's physical structure orelectrochemical functions difficulty even though both may score equally on an varyinginfluences of genetics and environments on thing one can be certain in thisarea the human mind is a there areobviously significant organic differences in intellectual capacities ofindividuals If of socialdiscrimination and ignorance of the incredible malleability of children it is Dictionaries are of little helpin defining language whether used or conceived as a means of communicating thought emotions whole of the study of language isthat of the Achild learns the syntax of his expressed in sentences Wood pp Ifthis is morpheme Methodologically language has been taught in discrete units Saussure distinguishedbetween la langue which is the grammatic and semantic of signs and le langage which isthe and how we should teach with syntactics We would teach children when words start gettingcombined child aredistinct levels of language and cannot be interchanged prevails over form meaning comes before grammar whichshould words and probably understands many potential meanings at the child's command researchers free morphemes Wood pp For example a A six-year old is likely to point that all these child language of deaf-mute parents isolated children is the species-determined brain development viz all children belong A common assumptionamong students of child language has been grammar are no longerso readily discernible pp By this age composed of arbitrarysigns Englefield p It is animals can make signs but do not knowsigns He noted far it forms a conception like ours of what to represent or think about the pattern been acquired One of themost basic methods of see that most knowledge is acquired inductively and thisincludes ofpsychology p Linguistic rules are inferred from what peop
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